Hartmann,Loewenstein和Kris在1939年至20世纪60年代后期的一系列论文和书籍中对该理论进行了改进。 Leo Bellak是后来的贡献者。这一系列结构与认知理论的后期发展相似,包括自主自我功能的概念:心理功能,至少在起源时,不依赖于心理内冲突。这些功能包括:感官知觉,运动控制,象征思维,逻辑思维,言语,抽象,整合(综合),定向,集中,危险判断,现实测试,适应能力,行政决策,卫生和自我保护。弗洛伊德指出,抑制是一种心灵可以用来干扰任何这些功能以避免痛苦情绪的方法。 Hartmann(20世纪50年代)指出,这些职能可能存在延迟或缺陷。
Frosch(1964)描述了那些表现出与现实关系受损的人的差异,但他们似乎能够测试它。
根据自我心理学,后来由Otto F. Kernberg(1975)描述的自我优势包括控制口头,性和破坏性冲动的能力;容忍痛苦的影响而不分崩离析;并防止火山爆发成为奇异的象征性幻想的意识。与自主功能相比,综合功能源于自我的发展,并且有助于管理冲突过程。防御是合成功能,保护有意识的头脑免受禁止的冲动和思想的意识。自我心理学的一个目的是强调一些心理功能可以被认为是基本的,而不是愿望,影响或防御的衍生物。然而,由于无意识的冲突,自主的自我功能可能会受到二次影响。例如,患者可能因为内心间冲突(希望不记得,因为它太痛苦)而具有歇斯底里的健忘症(记忆是自主功能)。
精神分析与心理治疗的适应范式
主要文章:Robert Langs
“心理治疗的适应范式”源于罗伯特·朗斯的作品。适应性范式主要通过有意识和无意识适应现实来解释心理冲突。 Langs最近的工作在某种程度上回归到早期的弗洛伊德,因为Langs更倾向于对结构模型(id,ego和super-ego)的心灵地形模型(有意识的,前意识的和无意识的)的修改版本,包括前者对创伤的强调(尽管Langs看起来与死亡相关的创伤而不是性创伤)。[45]与此同时,Langs的心智模式与弗洛伊德的不同之处在于它从进化生物学原理的角度理解心灵。[65]
主体间精神分析
“主体间性”一词由George E. Atwood和Robert Stolorow(1984)在精神分析中引入。主体间性方法强调人格发展和治疗过程如何受到患者主观视角与他人主观视角之间相互关系的影响。人际关系和主体间方法的作者:Otto Rank,Heinz Kohut,Stephen A. Mitchell,Jessica Benjamin,Bernard Brandchaft,J。Fosshage,Donna M.Orange,Arnold“Arnie”Mindell,Thomas Ogden,Owen Renik,Irwin Z. Hoffman,Harold Searles,Colwyn Trevarthen,Edgar A. Levenson,Jay Greenberg,Edward R. Ritvo,Beatrice Beebe,Frank M. Lachmann,Herbert Rosenfeld和Daniel Stern。
当患者躺在沙发上并且分析师不在视线时,患者往往会记住更多的经历,更多的抵抗和转移,并且能够在洞察力发展后通过分析师的解释工作重新组织思想。虽然通过对梦的考察可以理解幻想生活,但手淫幻想(参见Marcus,I。和Francis,J。(1975),从婴儿到衰老的手淫)也很重要。分析师对患者如何应对并避免这种幻想感兴趣(参见Paul Gray(1994),The Ego and the Analysis of Defense)。[72]早期生活的各种记忆通常被扭曲 - 弗洛伊德称之为“屏幕记忆” - 无论如何,非常早期的经历(在2岁之前) - 不能被记住(参见埃莉诺·加伦森关于“唤起记忆”的儿童研究)。
卡尔波普尔认为,精神分析是一种伪科学,因为它的主张是不可测试的,不能被驳斥;也就是说,它们不是可证伪的。[108] Imre Lakatos后来写道,“弗洛伊德一直对波普尔关于科学诚实的基本挑战感到困惑。实际上,他们拒绝指定他们放弃基本假设的实验条件。”[109]哲学家罗杰斯克鲁顿,写在性Desire(1986)拒绝了波普尔的观点,指出压制理论作为弗洛伊德理论的一个例子,确实具有可测试的结果。然而,Scruton得出的结论是,精神分析并非真正科学,因为它涉及对隐喻的不可接受的依赖。[110]
特别是认知科学家也在权衡。积极心理学著名学者马丁塞利格曼写道:“三十年前,心理学的认知革命推翻了弗洛伊德和行为主义者,至少在学术界是如此...... [T]暗示...不仅仅是情感或行为的结果....... [E]运动总是由认知产生,而不是相反。“[111]语言学家Noam Chomsky批评精神分析缺乏科学依据。[112]史蒂文·平克认为,弗洛伊德理论对于理解思想是不科学的。[113]进化生物学家史蒂芬杰伊古尔德认为精神分析受到重新理论等伪科学理论的影响。心理学家Hans Eysenck [114]和John F. Kihlstrom [115]也批评该领域为伪科学。
另见
List of schools of psychoanalysis
Psychoanalytic sociology
Psychoanalysis and music
Training analysis
Notes
Alfred Adler developed the school of thought known as individual psychology, while Carl Jung established analytical psychology.
Kaplan and Sadock's Synopsis of Psychiatry, 2007: "Psychoanalysis has existed before the turn of the 20th century and, in that span of years, has established itself as one of the fundamental disciplines within psychiatry. The science of psychoanalysis is the bedrock of psychodynamic understanding and forms the fundamental theoretical frame of reference for a variety of forms of therapeutic intervention, embracing not only psychoanalysis itself but also various forms of psychoanalytically oriented psychotherapy and related forms of therapy using psychodynamic concepts." [9]
Robert Michels, 2009: "Psychoanalysis continues to be an important paradigm organizing the way many psychiatrists think about patients and treatment. However, its limitations are more widely recognized and it is assumed that many important advances in the future will come from other areas, particularly biologic psychiatry. As yet unresolved is the appropriate role of psychoanalytic thinking in organizing the treatment of patients and the training of psychiatrists after that biologic revolution has born fruit. Will treatments aimed at biologic defects or abnormalities become technical steps in a program organized in a psychoanalytic framework? Will psychoanalysis serve to explain and guide supportive intervention for individuals whose lives are deformed by biologic defect and therapeutic interventions, much as it now does for patients with chronic physical illness, with the psychoanalyst on the psychiatric dialysis program? Or will we look back on the role of psychoanalysis in the treatment of the seriously mentally ill as the last and most scientifically enlightened phase of the humanistic tradition in psychiatry, a tradition that became extinct when advances in biology allowed us to cure those we had so long only comforted?"[10]
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Merton M. Gill, American Mental Health Foundation: "What is psychoanalysis? Of course, one is supposed to answer that it is many things — a theory, a research method, a therapy, a body of knowledge. In what might be considered an unfortunately abbreviated description, Freud said that anyone who recognizes transference and resistance is a psychoanalyst, even if he comes to conclusions other than his own. ... I prefer to think of the analytic situation more broadly, as one in which someone seeking help tries to speak as freely as he can to someone who listens as carefully as he can with the aim of articulating what is going on between them and why. David Rapaport (1967a) once defined the analytic situation as carrying the method of interpersonal relationship to its last consequences." Gill, Merton M. "Psychoanalysis, Part 1: Proposals for the Future", American Mental Health Foundation, archived 10 June 2009
Jane Milton, Caroline Polmear, Julia Fabricius. A Short Introduction to Psychoanalysis. SAGE, 2011, 27. "All psychoanalytic theories include the idea that unconscious thoughts and feelings are central in mental functioning."
Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. New York: W. W. Norton, 1988, 3–4, 103.
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Mitchell, Juliet. Psychoanalysis and Feminism: A Radical Reassessment of Freudian Psychoanalysis. Penguin Books, 2000, 341.
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For session length, Thompson, M. Guy. The Ethic of Honesty: The Fundamental Rule of Psychoanalysis, Rodopi, 2004, 75.
For session frequency, Hinshelwood, Robert D. "Surveying the Maze", in Serge Frisch, Robert D. Hinshelwood, and Jean-Marie Gauthier (eds.). Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy: The Controversies and the Future, Karnac Books, 2001, 128.
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