在许多情况下,一个不能生育孩子的妇女被排除在社会和文化活动之外,包括传统仪式。在莫桑比克和尼日利亚,人们看到了这种耻辱感,在那里,不孕妇女被视为对社会的弃儿。[63]这是一种令人羞辱的做法,使社会中的不孕妇女贬值。[67] [68]在Makua传统中,怀孕和分娩被认为是女性的主要生活事件,nthaa'ra和ntha'ara no mwana的仪式只能由怀孕和生育的女性参加。[67 ]
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