另见
Phenylalanine
List of regions in the human brain
参考
Phillipson, O. T. (1979). "Afferent projections to the ventral tegmental area of Tsai and interfascicular nucleus: A horseradish peroxidase study in the rat". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 187 (1): 117–143. doi:10.1002/cne.901870108. PMID 489776.
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Bourdy R, Barrot M (November 2012). "A new control center for dopaminergic systems: pulling the VTA by the tail". Trends Neurosci. 35 (11): 681–690. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2012.06.007. PMID 22824232. In light of the crucial role of the tVTA in the opiate control of dopamine activity ...
In the context of addiction, the tVTA is a target for psychostimulant-induced plasticity [1,6,23] and is also essential for morphine action on dopamine neurons [19]. This latter finding suggests that the classical disinhibition model may need to be revisited in light of the GABAergic control that the tVTA exerts on dopamine systems. ...
The tVTA is rich in inhibitory GABA neurons expressing μ-opioid receptors and sends extensive projections toward midbrain dopamine cells. It is proposed as a major brake for dopamine systems. ...
The tVTA was initially described in rats as a bilateral cluster of GABA neurons within the posterior VTA, dorsolateral to the interpeduncular nucleus, and expressing FosB/ΔFosB after psychostimulant administration [1]. However, the Fos staining showed that this group of cells extends caudally beyond the defined borders of the VTA [1], shifting dorsally to become embedded within the superior cerebellar peduncle [2]. Around the same time as the tVTA was described, a region caudal to the rat VTA and lateral to the median raphe was proposed to influence passive aversive responses [24]. This region belongs to the reticular formation and was later designated as RMTg [3]. The RMTg extends rostrally, shifting ventrally to become embedded within the posterior VTA. A similar region has also been observed in primates [18] and in mice [25]. There is now agreement that the tVTA and RMTg are two faces of the same structure.
Barrot M, Sesack SR, Georges F, Pistis M, Hong S, Jhou TC (October 2012). "Braking dopamine systems: a new GABA master structure for mesolimbic and nigrostriatal functions". J. Neurosci. 32 (41): 14094–14101. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3370-12.2012. PMC 3513755. PMID 23055478. The tVTA/RMTg sends dense GABA projections to VTA and substantia nigra neurons. ...
Indeed, tVTA/RMTg cells express high levels of mu-opioid receptors (Jhou et al., 2009a, 2012; Jalabert et al., 2011), and in vivo, ex vivo and optogenetic electrophysiological approaches demonstrated that morphine excites dopamine neurons by targeting receptors localized to tVTA/RMTg cell bodies as well as its terminals within the VTA (Jalabert et al., 2011; Lecca et al., 2011; Matsui and Williams, 2011; Lecca et al., 2012). ... Recent research on the tVTA/RMTg started from observations related to psychostimulant induction of FosB/ΔFosB (Perrotti et al., 2005) and to the control of aversive responses (Jhou, 2005). The rat tVTA/RMTg showed a neuroanatomically delimited increase in the expression of Fos-related proteins following exposure to psychostimulants (Scammel et al., 2000; Perrotti et al., 2005; Geisler et al., 2008; Jhou et al., 2009a; Kaufling et al., 2009, 2010a, 2010b; Rottlant et al., 2010; Zahm et al., 2010; Cornish et al., 2012). This induction was observed with both acute and chronic exposure to psychostimulants, and with both self-administration and non-contingent administration. There is a strong selectivity of this molecular response, as the Fos-related induction was never observed with non-psychostimulant drugs (Perrotti et al., 2005; Kaufling et al., 2010b).
Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 6: Widely Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 147–148, 154–157. ISBN 9780071481274. Neurons from the SNc densely innervate the dorsal striatum where they play a critical role in the learning and execution of motor programs. Neurons from the VTA innervate the ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens), olfactory bulb, amygdala, hippocampus, orbital and medial prefrontal cortex, and cingulate cortex. VTA DA neurons play a critical role in motivation, reward-related behavior, attention, and multiple forms of memory. ... Thus, acting in diverse terminal fields, dopamine confers motivational salience ("wanting") on the reward itself or associated cues (nucleus accumbens shell region), updates the value placed on different goals in light of this new experience (orbital prefrontal cortex), helps consolidate multiple forms of memory (amygdala and hippocampus), and encodes new motor programs that will facilitate obtaining this reward in the future (nucleus accumbens core region and dorsal striatum). ... DA has multiple actions in the prefrontal cortex. It promotes the "cognitive control" of behavior: the selection and successful monitoring of behavior to facilitate attainment of chosen goals. Aspects of cognitive control in which DA plays a role include working memory, the ability to hold information "on line" in order to guide actions, suppression of prepotent behaviors that compete with goal-directed actions, and control of attention and thus the ability to overcome distractions. ... Noradrenergic projections from the LC thus interact with dopaminergic projections from the VTA to regulate cognitive control. ...
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Margolis, EB; Lock, H; Hjelmstad, GO; Fields, HL (2006b). "The ventral tegmental area revisited: Is there an electrophysiological marker for dopaminergic neurons?". J. Physiol. 577 (3): 907–24. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2006.117069. PMC 1890372. PMID 16959856.
Johnson, SW; North, RA (May 1992). "Two types of neurone in the rat ventral tegmental area and their synaptic inputs". The Journal of Physiology. 450: 455–68. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1992.sp019136. PMC 1176131. PMID 1331427.
Luo, Alice; Tahsili-Fahadan, P.; Wise, R. A.; Lupica, C. R.; Aston-Jones, G. (July 2011). "Linking Context with Reward: A Functional Circuit From Hippocampal CA3 to Ventral Tegmental Area". Science. 333 (6040): 353–356. Bibcode:2011Sci...333..353L. doi:10.1126/science.1204622. PMC 3150711. PMID 21764750.
Ikemoto S (November 2007). "Dopamine reward circuitry: two projection systems from the ventral midbrain to the nucleus accumbens-olfactory tubercle complex". Brain Research Reviews. 56 (1): 27–78. doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.05.004. PMC 2134972. PMID 17574681.
Brischoux F, Chakraborty S, Brierley DI, Ungless MA (March 2009). "Phasic excitation of dopamine neurons in ventral VTA by noxious stimuli". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106 (12): 4894–4899. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.4894B. doi:10.1073/pnas.0811507106. PMC 2660746. PMID 19261850.
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