情感可以是事件(例如,恐慌)或处置(例如,敌意),以及短命(例如,愤怒)或长寿(例如,悲伤)。[22]心理治疗师迈克尔·格雷厄姆(Michael C. Graham)将所有情感描述为存在于连续强度中的所有情感。[23]因此,恐惧的范围可以从温和的可怕到恐惧,也可能是从简单的尴尬到有毒的羞耻。[24]情感被描述为由一组协调的反应组成,其中可能包括言语,生理,行为和神经机制。[25]
Robert Plutchik同意Ekman的生物驱动观点,但发展了“情感之轮”,暗示了八种主要情感的积极或消极基础:喜悦与悲伤;愤怒与恐惧;信任与厌恶;和惊喜与期待。[36]可以修改一些基本的情感以形成复杂的情感。复杂的情感可能源于文化条件或与基本情感相结合的联想。或者,类似于原色组合的方式,主要情感可以融合以形成人类情感体验的全部范围。例如,人际关系的愤怒和厌恶可能会混合形成蔑视。基本情感之间存在关系,导致正面或负面影响。[41]
Alan S. Cowen和Dacher Keltner(2017)确定了27种情感。[42] [43]
沿着进化心理学谱的更现代的观点认为,基本的情感和社会情感的进化都是为了激发在祖先环境中适应的(社会)行为。[12]目前的研究[引证需要]表明情感是任何人类决策和计划的重要组成部分,理性和情感之间的着名区别并不像看起来那么清晰。 Paul D. MacLean声称情感一方面与更本能的反应竞争,另一方面则更抽象的推理。神经成像的潜力增加也使得能够对进化上古老的大脑部分进行调查。 Joseph E. LeDoux和AntónioDamásio在20世纪90年代从这些观点中得出了重要的神经学进展。
情感事件理论是由Howard M. Weiss和Russell Cropanzano(1996)[75]开发的一种基于交流的理论,它研究了情感经历的原因,结构和后果(特别是在工作环境中)。这一理论认为情感受到事件的影响和引起,事件反过来影响态度和行为。这个理论框架也强调了人类经历他们所谓的情感事件的时间 - \“一系列情感状态随着时间的推移而延伸,并围绕一个潜在的主题进行组织。”许多研究人员利用这一理论来更好地理解交际视角下的情感,Howard M. Weiss和Daniel J. Beal在他们的文章“情感事件理论的反思”中进一步对此进行了评论,该文章发表在“组织情感研究”上。在2005年。[76]
从情感的角度来看
由Paul E. Griffiths和Andrea Scarantino提出的情感观点强调了外在因素在情感发展和传播中的重要性,并借鉴了心理学中的情境主义方法。[77]这一理论与认知主义和新詹姆斯的情感理论明显不同,两者都认为情感是一种纯粹的内部过程,环境只是作为对情感的刺激。相比之下,情境主义者对情感的看法将情感视为调查其环境的有机体的产物,并观察其他有机体的反应。情感刺激了社会关系的演变,充当了调解其他生物行为的信号。在某些情况下,情感(自愿和非自愿)的表达可被视为不同生物之间交易的战略举措。情感的情境表明,概念思维不是情感的固有部分,因为情感是一种以行动为导向的与世界接触的形式。格里菲斯和斯卡兰蒂诺认为,这种关于情感的观点可能有助于理解恐惧症,以及婴儿和动物的情感。
[attach]7971[/attach]
Lövheim情感立方体
情感被认为与大脑领域的某些活动有关,这些活动引导我们的注意力,激励我们的行为,并确定我们周围发生的事情的重要性。 Paul Broca(1878),[82] James Papez(1937),[83]和Paul D. MacLean(1952)[84]的开创性工作表明,情感与大脑中心的一组结构有关,称为边缘系统,包括下丘脑,扣带皮层,海马和其他结构。最近的研究表明,这些边缘结构中的一些并不像其他结构那样与情感直接相关,而一些非边缘结构被发现具有更大的情感相关性。
社会科学经常研究情感在人类文化和社会互动中所起的作用。在社会学中,情感被检查它们在人类社会,社会模式和互动以及文化中所起的作用。在人类学,人类学研究中,学者们使用人种学对一系列人类活动进行语境分析和跨文化比较。一些人类学研究考察了情感在人类活动中的作用。在通信科学领域,关键的组织学者从管理者,员工甚至客户的角度研究了情感在组织中的作用。关注组织中的情感可以归功于Arlie Russell Hochschild的情感劳动概念。昆士兰大学主办EmoNet,[99]一个电子邮件分发名单,代表一个学术网络,促进学术讨论与组织环境中的情感研究有关的所有事项。该清单成立于1997年1月,拥有来自全球的700多名成员。
20世纪一些最有影响力的情感理论家在过去十年中去世了。他们包括美国心理学家Magda B. Arnold(1903-2002),他开发了情感评估理论; [131] Richard Lazarus(1922-2002),一位专注于情感和压力的美国心理学家,特别是在认知方面。 ; Herbert A. Simon(1916-2001),将情感纳入决策和人工智能; Robert Plutchik(1928-2006),美国心理学家,开发了情感的心理革命理论; [132] Robert Zajonc(1923-2008),波兰裔美国社会心理学家,专门研究社会和认知过程,如社会促进;罗伯特C.所罗门(1942-2007),一位美国哲学家,他通过诸如“情感是什么?:经典与当代读物”(2003); [133] Peter Goldie(1946-)等书籍为情感哲学的理论做出了贡献。 2011),一位专注于道德,美学,情感,情感和品格的英国哲学家; Nico Frijda(1927-2015),一位荷兰心理学家,提出了人类情感用于促进采取适当行动的倾向的理论,详见他的“情感”(1986); [134] Jaak Panksepp (1943-2017),爱沙尼亚出生的美国心理学家,心理生物学家,神经科学家和情感神经科学的先驱。
仍然活跃的有影响力的理论家包括以下心理学家,神经学家,哲学家和社会学家:
Lisa Feldman Barrett - (生于1963年)神经科学家和心理学家,专门研究情感科学和人类情感。
John Cacioppo - (生于1951年)来自芝加哥大学,社会神经科学的Gary Berntson的创始人。
兰德尔柯林斯 - (1941年出生)宾夕法尼亚大学的美国社会学家发展了互动仪式理论,其中包括情感夹带模型。
AntónioDamásio(生于1944年) - 葡萄牙行为神经学家和神经科学家,曾在美国工作。
理查德戴维森(生于1951年) - 美国心理学家和神经科学家;情感神经科学的先驱。
Paul Ekman(生于1934年) - 心理学家,专门研究情感及其与面部表情的关系。
Barbara Fredrickson - 专注于情感和积极心理学的社会心理学家。
Arlie Russell Hochschild(生于1940年) - 美国社会学家,他的核心贡献在于在社会生活中的情感皮下流动与组织内现代资本主义松散的大趋势之间建立联系。
Joseph E. LeDoux(生于1949年) - 美国神经科学家,研究记忆和情感的生物学基础,尤其是恐惧机制。
乔治曼德勒(生于1924年) - 美国心理学家,撰写有关认知和情感的有影响力的书籍。
Konstantinos V. Petrides - 希腊 - 英国心理学家,擅长情感,人格,心理测量学和心灵哲学。伦敦大学学院心理学和心理测量学教授。
杰西·普林兹(Jesse Prinz) - 专注于情感,道德心理学,美学和意识的美国哲学家。
James A. Russell(生于1947年) - 美国心理学家,他开发或共同开发了环境影响的PAD理论,情感的环形模型,情感概念的原型理论,对面部表情中情感的普遍认可假设的批判,概念核心影响,情感概念分化的发展理论,以及最近的情感心理构建理论。
Klaus Scherer(生于1943年) - 瑞士心理学家,瑞士日内瓦情感科学中心主任;他擅长情感心理学。
Ronald de Sousa(生于1940年) - 英国 - 加拿大哲学家,擅长情感哲学,心灵哲学和生物学哲学。
Jonathan H. Turner(生于1942年) - 加州大学河滨分校的美国社会学家,他是一位社会学理论家,专业领域包括情感社会学,种族关系,社会制度,社会分层和生物社会学。
DominiqueMoïsi(生于1946年) - 撰写了一本名为“情感的地缘政治”的书,专注于与全球化有关的情感。[135]
另见
Affect measures
Affective forecasting
Emoticons
Emotion and memory
Emotion Review
Emotional intelligence
Emotions in virtual communication
Empathy
Facial feedback hypothesis
Fuzzy-trace theory
Group emotion
Moral emotions
Neuroendocrinology
Social emotion
Social sharing of emotions
Two-factor theory of emotion
Yerkes–Dodson law
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See also emotions and culture
How Emotions Are Made, 2017, Introduction
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Moisi, Dominique (2009). The Geopolitics of Emotion: How Cultures of Fear, Humiliation and Hope are Reshaping the World. London: Bodley Head. ISBN 978-1-4090-7708-4.
Further reading
Dana Sugu & Amita Chaterjee "Flashback: Reshuffling Emotions", International Journal on Humanistic Ideology, Vol. 3 No. 1, Spring–Summer 2010.
Cornelius, R. (1996). The science of emotion. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Denton D (2006). The Primordial Emotions: The Dawning of Consciousness. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-920314-7.
Fox E (2008). Emotion Science: An Integration of Cognitive and Neuroscientific Approaches. Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-230-00517-4.
Freitas-Magalhães, A. (Ed.). (2009). Emotional Expression: The Brain and The Face. Porto: University Fernando Pessoa Press. ISBN 978-989-643-034-4.
Freitas-Magalhães, A. (2007). The Psychology of Emotions: The Allure of Human Face. Oporto: University Fernando Pessoa Press.
González, Ana Marta (2012). The Emotions and Cultural Analysis. Burlington, VT : Ashgate. ISBN 978-1-4094-5317-8
Ekman, P. (1999). "Basic Emotions". In: T. Dalgleish and M. Power (Eds.). Handbook of Cognition and Emotion. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Sussex, UK:.
Frijda, N.H. (1986). The Emotions. Maison des Sciences de l'Homme and Cambridge University Press
Russell Hochschild, Arlie (1983). The managed heart: commercialization of human feeling. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520054547
Hogan, Patrick Colm. (2011). What Literature Teaches Us about Emotion Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hordern, Joshua. (2013). Political Affections: Civic Participation and Moral Theology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199646813
LeDoux, J.E. (1986). The neurobiology of emotion. Chap. 15 in J.E. LeDoux & W. Hirst (Eds.) Mind and Brain: dialogues in cognitive neuroscience. New York: Cambridge.
Mandler, G. (1984). Mind and Body: Psychology of emotion and stress. New York: Norton.http://www.affective-sciences.or ... 005_Scherer_SSI.pdf[permanent dead link]
Nussbaum, Martha C. (2001) Upheavals of Thought: The Intelligence of Emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Plutchik, R. (1980). A general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion. In R. Plutchik & H. Kellerman (Eds.), Emotion: Theory, research, and experience: Vol. 1. Theories of emotion (pp. 3–33). New York: Academic.
Roberts, Robert. (2003). Emotions: An Essay in Aid of Moral Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Robinson DL (2008). "Brain function, emotional experience and personality" (PDF). Netherlands Journal of Psychology: 152–67.
Scherer, K (2005). "What are emotions and how can they be measured?" (PDF). Social Science Information. 44 (4): 695–729. doi:10.1177/0539018405058216. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 February 2015.
Solomon, R. (1993). The Passions: Emotions and the Meaning of Life. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.
Zeki S, Romaya JP (2008). "Neural correlates of hate". PLOS One. 3 (10): e3556. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003556. PMC 2569212. PMID 18958169.
Wikibook Cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience
Dror Green (2011). "Emotional Training, the art of creating a sense of a safe place in a changing world". Bulgaria: Books, Publishers and the Institute of Emotional Training.