不幸的是,颅内压升高的迹象,如视神经乳头水肿和瞳孔反射丧失,是不可靠的,并且发生在疾病过程的后期。大脑的CT成像在检测早期脑水肿方面也没有帮助,但通常用于排除脑内出血。通常建议通过硬膜下途径进行侵入性颅内压监测;但是,必须权衡并发症的风险与可能的益处(1%致命性出血)。[5]目的是维持颅内压低于25 mm Hg,脑灌注压高于50 mm Hg。[2]
参考:
O'Grady JG, Schalm SW, Williams R (1993). "Acute liver failure: redefining the syndromes". Lancet. 342 (8866): 273–5. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(93)91818-7. PMID 8101303.
O'Grady JG (2005). "Acute liver failure". Postgraduate Medical Journal. 81 (953): 148–54. doi:10.1136/pgmj.2004.026005. PMC 1743234. PMID 15749789.
Hazell, Alan S.; Butterworth, Roger F. (1999). "Hepatic encephalopathy: An update of pathophysiologic mechanisms". Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 222 (2): 99–112. doi:10.1046/j.1525-1373.1999.d01-120.x. PMID 10564534.
Larsen FS, Wendon J (2002). "Brain edema in liver failure: basic physiologic principles and management". Liver Transpl. 8 (11): 983–9. doi:10.1053/jlts.2002.35779. PMID 12424710.
Armstrong IR, Pollok A, Lee A (1993). "Complications of intracranial pressure monitoring in fulminant hepatic failure". Lancet. 341 (8846): 690–1. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(93)90458-S. PMID 8095592.
Gimson AE (1996). "Fulminant and late onset hepatic failure". British Journal of Anaesthesia. 77 (1): 90–8. doi:10.1093/bja/77.1.90. PMID 8703634.
Schmidt LE, Larsen FS (2006). "Prognostic implications of hyperlactatemia, multiple organ failure, and systemic inflammatory response syndrome in patients with acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure". Crit. Care Med. 34 (2): 337–43. doi:10.1097/01.CCM.0000194724.70031.B6. PMID 16424712.
Harry R, Auzinger G, Wendon J (2002). "The clinical importance of adrenal insufficiency in acute hepatic dysfunction". Hepatology. 36 (2): 395–402. doi:10.1053/jhep.2002.34514. PMID 12143048.
Bihari D, Gimson AE, Waterson M, Williams R (1985). "Tissue hypoxia during fulminant hepatic failure". Crit. Care Med. 13 (12): 1034–9. doi:10.1097/00003246-198512000-00010. PMID 3933911.
Trewby PN, Warren R, Contini S, et al. (1978). "Incidence and pathophysiology of pulmonary edema in fulminant hepatic failure". Gastroenterology. 74 (5 Pt 1): 859–65. PMID 346431.
Li XM, Ma L, Yang YB, Shi ZJ, Zhou SS (2005). "Clinical characteristics of fulminant hepatitis in pregnancy". World J Gastroenterol. 11 (29): 4600–3. doi:10.3748/wjg.v11.i29.4600. PMC 4398717. PMID 16052697.
Li XM, Ma L, Yang YB, Shi ZJ, Zhou SS (2005). "Prognostic factors of fulminant hepatitis in pregnancy". Chin Med J (Engl). 118 (20): 1754–7. PMID 16313765.
Peltola; et al. (2004). "News on cereulide, the emetic toxin of Bacillus Cereus".
Takabe F, Oya M (1976). "An autopsy case of food poisoning associated with Bacillus cereus". Forensic Science. 7 (2): 97–101. doi:10.1016/0300-9432(76)90024-8. PMID 823082.
Mahler H; et al. (1997). "Fulminant liver failure in association with the emetic toxin of Bacillus cereus". N Engl J Med. 336 (16): 1142–1148. doi:10.1056/NEJM199704173361604. PMID 9099658.
Dierick K; et al. (2005). "Fatal family outbreak of Bacillus cereus-associated food poisoning". J Clin Microbiol. 43 (8): 4277–4279. doi:10.1128/JCM.43.8.4277-4279.2005. PMC 1233987. PMID 16082000.
Shiota, M; et al. (2010). "Rapid Detoxification of Cereulide in Bacillus cereus Food Poisoning". Pediatrics. 125 (4): e951–e955. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-2319. PMID 20194285.
Naranjo, M; et al. (2011). "Sudden Death of a Young Adult Associated with Bacillus cereus Food Poisoning". J Clin Microbiol. 49 (12): 4379–4381. doi:10.1128/JCM.05129-11. PMC 3232990. PMID 22012017.
Boyer JL, Klatskin G (1970). "Pattern of necrosis in acute viral hepatitis. Prognostic value of bridging (subacute hepatic necrosis)". N. Engl. J. Med. 283 (20): 1063–71. doi:10.1056/NEJM197011122832001. PMID 4319402.
Polson J, Lee WM (2005). "AASLD position paper: the management of acute liver failure". Hepatology. 41 (5): 1179–97. doi:10.1002/hep.20703. PMID 15841455.
Sleisenger, edited by Mark Feldman, Lawrence S. Friedman, Lawrence J. Brandt; consulting editor, Marvin H. (2009). Sleisenger & Fordtran's gastrointestinal and liver disease pathophysiology, diagnosis, management (PDF) (9th ed.). St. Louis, Mo.: MD Consult. ISBN 978-1-4160-6189-2.
Sood, Gagan K. "Acute Liver Failure". Mescape. Retrieved 14 December 2011.
O'Grady JG, Alexander GJ, Hayllar KM, Williams R (1989). "Early indicators of prognosis in fulminant hepatic failure". Gastroenterology. 97 (2): 439–45. doi:10.1016/0016-5085(89)90081-4. PMID 2490426.
Jalan, R (2005). "Acute liver failure: current management and future prospects". Journal of Hepatology. 42 Suppl (1): S115–23. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2004.11.010. PMID 15777566.
Polson, J; Lee, WM; American Association for the Study of Liver, Disease (May 2005). "AASLD position paper: the management of acute liver failure". Hepatology. 41 (5): 1179–97. doi:10.1002/hep.20703. PMID 15841455.
Jalan, R (August 2003). "Intracranial hypertension in acute liver failure: pathophysiological basis of rational management". Seminars in Liver Disease. 23 (3): 271–82. doi:10.1055/s-2003-42645. PMID 14523680.
Jalan, R; Olde Damink, SW; Deutz, NE; Davies, NA; Garden, OJ; Madhavan, KK; Hayes, PC; Lee, A (27 June 2003). "Moderate hypothermia prevents cerebral hyperemia and increase in intracranial pressure in patients undergoing liver transplantation for acute liver failure". Transplantation. 75 (12): 2034–9. doi:10.1097/01.tp.0000066240.42113.ff. PMID 12829907.
Murphy, N; Auzinger, G; Bernel, W; Wendon, J (February 2004). "The effect of hypertonic sodium chloride on intracranial pressure in patients with acute liver failure". Hepatology. 39 (2): 464–70. doi:10.1002/hep.20056. PMID 14767999.
Wijdicks, EF; Nyberg, SL (June 2002). "Propofol to control intracranial pressure in fulminant hepatic failure". Transplantation Proceedings. 34 (4): 1220–2. doi:10.1016/s0041-1345(02)02804-x. PMID 12072321.
Shami, VM; Caldwell, SH; Hespenheide, EE; Arseneau, KO; Bickston, SJ; Macik, BG (February 2003). "Recombinant activated factor VII for coagulopathy in fulminant hepatic failure compared with conventional therapy". Liver Transplantation : Official Publication of the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases and the International Liver Transplantation Society. 9 (2): 138–43. doi:10.1053/jlts.2003.50017. PMID 12548507.
Brown RS, Jr; Russo, MW; Lai, M; Shiffman, ML; Richardson, MC; Everhart, JE; Hoofnagle, JH (27 February 2003). "A survey of liver transplantation from living adult donors in the United States". The New England Journal of Medicine. 348 (9): 818–25. doi:10.1056/nejmsa021345. PMID 12606737.
Farmer, DG; Anselmo, DM; Ghobrial, RM; Yersiz, H; McDiarmid, SV; Cao, C; Weaver, M; Figueroa, J; Khan, K; Vargas, J; Saab, S; Han, S; Durazo, F; Goldstein, L; Holt, C; Busuttil, RW (May 2003). "Liver transplantation for fulminant hepatic failure: experience with more than 200 patients over a 17-year period". Annals of Surgery. 237 (5): 666–75, discussion 675–6. doi:10.1097/01.sla.0000064365.54197.9e. PMC 1514517. PMID 12724633.
Lee WM, Hynan LS, Rossaro L, et al. (September 2009). "Intravenous N-acetylcysteine improves transplant-free survival in early stage non-acetaminophen acute liver failure". Gastroenterology. 137 (3): 856–64, 864.e1. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2009.06.006. PMC 3189485. PMID 19524577.
Rakela J, Lange SM, Ludwig J, Baldus WP (1985). "Fulminant hepatitis: Mayo Clinic experience with 34 cases". Mayo Clin. Proc. 60 (5): 289–92. doi:10.1016/s0025-6196(12)60534-5. PMID 3921780.
Ostapowicz G, Fontana RJ, Schiødt FV, et al. (2002). "Results of a prospective study of acute liver failure at 17 tertiary care centers in the United States". Ann. Intern. Med. 137 (12): 947–54. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-137-12-200212170-00007. PMID 12484709.
Trey C, Davidson CS (1970). "The management of fulminant hepatic failure". Progress in Liver Diseases. 3: 282–98. PMID 4908702.
Bernuau J, Goudeau A, Poynard T, et al. (1986). "Multivariate analysis of prognostic factors in fulminant hepatitis B". Hepatology. 6 (4): 648–51. doi:10.1002/hep.1840060417. PMID 3732998.
Gimson AE, O'Grady J, Ede RJ, Portmann B, Williams R (1986). "Late onset hepatic failure: clinical, serological and histological features". Hepatology. 6 (2): 288–94. doi:10.1002/hep.1840060222. PMID 3082735.
Sass DA, Shakil AO (2005). "Fulminant hepatic failure". Liver Transpl. 11 (6): 594–605. doi:10.1002/lt.20435. PMC 1026537. PMID 15915484.