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作者:大江 | 时间:2018-8-10 00:10:28 | 阅读:571| 显示全部楼层

Silhouettes and waist circumferences representing optimal, overweight, and obese

Silhouettes and waist circumferences representing optimal, overweight, and obese

剪影和腰围代表最佳,超重和肥胖

肥胖是一种医学状况,其中体内多余的脂肪累积到可能对健康产生负面影响的程度。[1]当人们的体重指数(BMI)(通过将人的体重除以人的身高的平方而得到的测量值)超过30kg / m2时,人们通常被认为是肥胖,其中25-30kg / m 2的范围被定义为超重。 [1]一些东亚国家使用较低的价值。[8]肥胖增加了各种疾病和病症的可能性,特别是心血管疾病,2型糖尿病,阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停,某些类型的癌症,骨关节炎和抑郁症。[2] [3]

肥胖最常见的原因是食物摄入过多,缺乏体力活动和遗传易感性。[1] [4]少数病例主要由基因,内分泌失调,药物治疗或精神障碍引起[9]。由于新陈代谢缓慢导致肥胖人群少吃但体重增加的观点并未在医学上得到支持。[10]平均而言,由于维持体重增加所需的能量,肥胖人的能量消耗比正常人更高[10] [11]。

通过社会变革和个人选择的结合,肥胖大多是可以预防的。[1]饮食和运动的变化是主要的治疗方法。[2]通过减少高能量食物(如脂肪或糖类含量高的食物)的消费量,以及增加膳食纤维的摄入量,可以改善饮食质量。[1]可以使用药物以及合适的饮食来减少食欲或减少脂肪吸收。[5]如果饮食,运动和药物无效,可以进行胃气球或手术以减少肠胃容量或肠道长度,从而导致感觉更早或从食物中吸收养分的能力降低[6] [12]。

肥胖是世界范围内可预防的主要死因,成人和儿童的发病率正在上升。[1] [13] 2015年,在195个国家中有6亿成人(12%)和1亿儿童肥胖。[7]肥胖在女性中比男性更常见。[1]当局将其视为21世纪最严重的公共卫生问题之一。[14]肥胖在现代世界的大部分地区(特别是在西方世界)受到侮辱,尽管它在历史上的其他时间被视为财富和生育的象征,并且仍然存在于世界的某些地方。[2] [15] 2013年,美国医学协会将肥胖列为一种疾病。[16] [17]

视频: ↓ 什么是肥胖?
https://cache.tv.qq.com/qqplayerout.swf?vid=v0751gxp1co


内容
1 分类
2 对健康的影响
2.1 死亡率
2.2 发病率
2.3 生存悖论
3 原因
3.1 饮食
3.2 久坐不动的生活方式
3.3 遗传学
3.4 其他疾病
3.5 社会决定因素
3.6 肠道细菌
4 病理生理学
5 公共卫生
5.1 报告
6 管理
7 流行病学
8 历史
8.1 词源
8.2 历史态度
8.3 艺术
9 社会与文化
9.1 经济影响
9.2 尺寸验收
9.3 行业对研究的影响
10 儿童肥胖
11 其他动物
12 参考

分类
主要文章:肥胖的分类

“超级肥胖”男性躯干的正面和侧面视图。 与男性乳房发育症一起可见皮肤的妊娠纹。

A "super obese" male with a BMI of 53 kg/m2: weight 182 kg (400 lb), height 185 cm (6 ft 1 in). ...

A "super obese" male with a BMI of 53 kg/m2: weight 182 kg (400 lb), height 185 cm (6 ft 1 in).  ...

BMI为53 kg / m2的“超级肥胖”男性:体重182公斤(400磅),身高185厘米(6英尺1英寸)。他呈现妊娠纹和乳房增大

肥胖是一种医学状况,其中体内多余的脂肪累积到可能对健康产生不利影响的程度。[19]它由体重指数(BMI)定义,并通过腰臀比和总心血管危险因素进一步评估脂肪分布。[20] [21] BMI与身体脂肪百分比和全身脂肪密切相关。[22]在儿童中,健康的体重因年龄和性别而异。儿童和青少年的肥胖不是绝对数量,而是与历史正常人群相关,肥胖是BMI大于第95百分位数。[23]这些百分位数所依据的参考数据可追溯至1963年至1994年,因此未受近期体重增加的影响。[24] BMI定义为受试者的体重除以其身高的平方,并计算如下。


其中m和h分别是受试者的体重和身高。
BMI通常以千克每平方米表示,当以千克和高度(米)测量重量时产生。转换为磅/平方英寸乘以703(kg / m2)/(磅/平方英寸)。[25]

世界卫生组织(世卫组织)于1997年制定并于2000年公布的最常用定义提供了表中所列的数值。[26] [27]

特定组织对世卫组织定义作了一些修改。[28]手术文献将II类和III类肥胖分解为更多类别,其确切值仍有争议。[29]

任何BMI≥35或40 kg / m2都是严重肥胖。
体重指数≥35kg / m2且经历肥胖相关的健康状况或≥40-44.9kg / m2是病态肥胖。
体重指数≥45或50 kg / m2是超级肥胖。
由于亚洲人口在BMI低于白种人的情况下对健康产生负面影响,一些国家已经重新定义了肥胖; 日本将肥胖定义为体重指数大于25千克/平方米[8],而中国使用的BMI大于28千克/平方米[28]。

对健康的影响
过多的体重与各种疾病和病症有关,特别是心血管疾病,2型糖尿病,阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停,某些类型的癌症,骨关节炎,[2]和哮喘[2] [30]。 结果,肥胖被发现会降低预期寿命。[2]

死亡

Relative risk of death over 10 years for white men (left) and women (right) who have never smoked in ...

Relative risk of death over 10 years for white men (left) and women (right) who have never smoked in ...

BMI从未在美国吸烟的白人(左)和女(右)的相对死亡风险超过10年。[31]

肥胖是世界范围内可预防的主要死因之一。[32] [33] [34]大量评论发现,非吸烟者的BMI为20-25 kg / m2 [35] [36] [37],当前吸烟者为24-27 kg / m2时死亡风险最低,风险增加两个方向的变化。[38] [39]这似乎适用于至少四大洲。[37]相比之下,2013年的一项综述发现,1级肥胖(BMI 30-35)与正常体重的死亡率无关,而超重(BMI 25-30)与“正常体重”(BMI 18.5)的“低”死亡率相关。 -25)。[40]其他证据表明,BMI和腰围与死亡率的关系是U形或J形,而腰臀比和腰高比与死亡率之间的关系更为积极。[41]在亚洲人中,负面健康影响的风险开始增加到22-25千克/平方米。[42]体重指数超过32公斤/平方米,导致16岁以上妇女死亡率翻了一倍。[43]在美国,肥胖估计每年造成111,909至365,000人死亡,[2] [34]而欧洲100万人(7.7%)的死亡是由于体重过重造成的。[44] [45]平均而言,肥胖会使预期寿命缩短6到7年,[2] [46] BMI为30-35 kg / m2可使预期寿命缩短2到4年[36],而严重肥胖(BMI> 40 kg / m2) )将预期寿命缩短十年。[36]

发病率
主要文章:肥胖相关的发病率
肥胖增加了许多身体和精神状况的风险。这些合并症最常见于代谢综合征[2],这些疾病包括:2型糖尿病,高血压,高血胆固醇和高甘油三酯水平。[47]

并发症或者直接由肥胖引起,或者通过共同的原因(例如不良饮食或久坐不动的生活方式)间接相关。肥胖与特定病症之间的联系强度各不相同。其中最强的是与2型糖尿病的联系。体脂过多是男性糖尿病病例的64%和女性病例的77%[48]。

健康后果分为两大类:可归因于脂肪量增加(如骨关节炎,阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停,社会耻辱感)和脂肪细胞数量增加(糖尿病,癌症,心血管疾病,非酒精性)的影响脂肪肝病。)[2] [49]体脂增加会改变身体对胰岛素的反应,可能导致胰岛素抵抗。增加的脂肪也会产生促炎状态,[50] [51]和促血栓形成状态。[49] [52]

医疗领域条件医疗领域条件
心脏
冠心病:[53]心绞痛和心肌梗死
充血性心力衰竭[2] [54]
高血压[2]
胆固醇水平异常[2]
深静脉血栓形成和栓塞[55]
皮肤科
妊娠纹[56]
黑棘皮病[56]
淋巴水肿[56]
蜂窝织炎[56]
多毛症[56]
擦烂[57]
内分泌学和生殖医学
糖尿病[2]
多囊卵巢综合征[2]
月经失调[2]
不育[2] [58]
怀孕期间的并发症[2] [58]
出生缺陷[2]
胎儿宫内死亡[58]
消化内科
胃食管反流病[14]
脂肪肝[14]
胆石症(胆结石)[14]
神经内科
行程[2]
感觉异常性痛 [59]
偏头痛[60]
腕管综合征[61]
痴呆[62]
特发性颅内高压[63]
多发性硬化症[64]
肿瘤[65]
食管


胆囊
子宫内膜

白血病
肝细胞癌[14]
恶性黑色素瘤
精神病学
女性抑郁症[2]
社会耻辱[2]
治疗COPD
阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停[2] [30]
肥胖低通气综合征[2] [30]
哮喘[2] [30]
全身麻醉期间并发症增加[2]
风湿病学和骨科
痛风[66]
行动不便[67]
骨关节炎[2]
腰痛[68]
泌尿外科和肾脏病学
勃起功能障碍[69]
尿失禁[70]
慢性肾功能衰竭[71]
性腺功能减退症[72]
包茎[73]
生存悖论
另见:肥胖悖论
尽管现有人群对肥胖的负面健康影响得到了现有证据的充分支持,但某些亚组的健康结果似乎在BMI增加时有所改善,这种现象被称为肥胖生存悖论。[74]悖论最初是在1999年描述的超重和肥胖人群进行血液透析[74],随后在心力衰竭和外周动脉疾病(PAD)患者中发现[75]。

在心力衰竭患者中,体重指数在30.0和34.9之间的人死亡率低于正常体重者。这归因于这样一个事实,即人们在逐渐生病时会经常减肥。[76]其他类型的心脏病也有类似的发现。患有I级肥胖和心脏病的人与患有心脏病的正常体重的人相比,没有更多的心脏问题。然而,在肥胖程度较高的人群中,进一步发生心血管事件的风险会增加。[77] [78]即使在心脏搭桥手术后,超重和肥胖者的死亡率也没有增加[79]。一项研究发现,改善的生存率可以通过肥胖人群在心脏事件发生后接受更积极的治疗来解释。[80]另一项研究发现,如果考虑到PAD患者的慢性阻塞性肺病(COPD),肥胖的益处已不复存在。[75]

原因
在个人层面,过量的食物能量摄入和缺乏身体活动的组合被认为可以解释大多数肥胖病例。[81]有限数量的病例主要是由于遗传,医学原因或精神疾病。[9]相比之下,社会层面肥胖率的增加被认为是由于饮食容易获得和可口,[82]对汽车的依赖程度增加,以及机械化制造。[83] [84]

2006年的一项综述确定了近期肥胖增加的其他10个可能因素:(1)睡眠不足,(2)内分泌干扰物(干扰脂质代谢的环境污染物),(3)环境温度变化减少,(4)降低率吸烟,因为吸烟抑制食欲,(5)增加使用可导致体重增加的药物(例如,非典型抗精神病药),(6)种族和年龄组的比例增加,往往更重,(7)以后怀孕年龄(可能导致儿童肥胖的易感性),(8)代谢传染的表观遗传风险因素,(9)较高BMI的自然选择,以及(10)同种交配导致肥胖危险因素浓度增加(这会增加通过增加人口的体重差异来增加肥胖人数。[85]虽然有证据支持这些机制对肥胖患病率增加的影响,但证据仍然没有定论,并且作者声称这些影响可能不如前一段所述。

饮食
主要文章:饮食和肥胖
(左)世界地图,其国家的颜色反映了1961年人民的食物能源消耗。北美,欧洲和澳大利亚的摄入量相对较高,而非洲和亚洲的消费量则相对较少。
1961年
(右)世界地图,其国家的颜色反映了2001 - 2003年人民的食物能源消耗。 北美,欧洲和澳大利亚的消费量与1971年的先前水平相比有所增加。亚洲许多地区的食品消费量也大幅增加。 然而,非洲的食物消费量仍然很低。
2001-03

Map of dietary energy availability per person per day in 1961 (left) and 2001–2003 (right)[86] Calo ...

Map of dietary energy availability per person per day in 1961 (left) and 2001–2003 (right)[86] Calo ...

1961年(左)和2001-2003(右)每人每天的膳食能量供应图[86]每人每天的卡路里(每人每天千焦

图表显示1961年至2002年间每人每天全球食物能源消耗量逐渐增加。

Average per capita energy consumption of the world from 1961 to 2002[86]

Average per capita energy consumption of the world from 1961 to 2002[86]

1961年至2002年世界人均能源消费量[86]

2016年的一项审查支持过量食品作为主要因素。[87]不同地区和国家之间人均膳食能源供应量差异显着。随着时间的推移,它也发生了重大变化。[86]从20世纪70年代初到90年代末,除东欧外,世界各地每人每天可获得的平均食物能量(购买的食物量)增加。美国的可用性最高,1996年每人3,654卡路里(15,290千焦)。[86]这在2003年进一步增加到3,754卡路里(15,710千焦耳)。[86]在20世纪90年代末期,欧洲人每人有3,394卡路里(14,200 kJ),在亚洲的发展中地区,每人有2,648卡路里(11,080 kJ),在撒哈拉以南非洲地区,每人有2,176卡路里(9,100 kJ)。 86] [88]已发现食物能源消耗总量与肥胖有关。[89]

营养指南[90]的广泛应用对解决暴饮暴食和不良饮食选择的问题几乎没有作用。[91]从1971年到2000年,美国的肥胖率从14.5%上升到30.9%。[92]在同一时期,平均消耗的食物能量增加。对于女性来说,平均每天增加335卡路里(1,400千焦耳)(1971年为1,542卡路里(6,450千焦),2004年为1,877卡路里(7,850千焦)),而男性平均每天增加168卡路里(700千焦耳) (1971年为2,450卡路里(10,300千焦),2004年为2,618卡路里(10,950千焦))。大部分额外的食物能量来自碳水化合物消费的增加,而不是脂肪的消耗。[93]这些额外碳水化合物的主要来源是甜味饮料,现在占美国年轻人日常食物能量的近25%,[94]和薯片。[95]人们认为饮用软饮料,果汁饮料,冰茶,能量和维生素水饮料等甜味饮料会增加肥胖率[96] [97],增加代谢综合征和2型糖尿病的风险。[98]维生素D缺乏症与肥胖相关的疾病有关。[99]

随着社会越来越依赖能量密集,大部分和快餐,快餐消费与肥胖之间的联系变得更加令人担忧。[100]在美国,快餐食品的消费量增加了两倍,从1977年到1995年,这些食品的食物能量摄入量翻了两番。[101]

美国和欧洲的农业政策和技术导致食品价格下降。在美国,通过美国农业法案对玉米,大豆,小麦和大米进行补贴使得加工食品的主要来源与水果和蔬菜相比便宜。[102]卡路里计数法和营养成分标签试图引导人们做出更健康的食物选择,包括意识到消耗了多少食物能量。

与正常体重的人相比,肥胖的人一直低报他们的食物消费。[103]这可以通过在量热仪室[104]进行的测试和直接观察来支持。

久坐不动的生活方式
另请参阅:久坐不动的生活方式和锻炼趋势
久坐不动的生活方式在肥胖中起着重要作用。[105]全世界都在向体力要求较低的工作转移,[106] [107] [108]并且目前世界上至少有30%的人口缺乏锻炼。[107]这主要是由于机械化运输的使用增加以及家庭中更多的节省劳动力的技术。[106] [107] [108]在儿童中,由于行走和体育教育较少,体育活动水平似乎有所下降。[109]主动休闲时间身体活动的世界趋势不太清楚。世界卫生组织表示,世界各地的人们正在从事不那么积极的娱乐活动,而芬兰的一项研究[110]发现增加,而美国的一项研究发现,休闲时间的体育活动没有发生显着变化。[111] 2011年对儿童身体活动的审查发现,这可能不是一个重要的贡献者。[112]

在儿童和成人中,电视观看时间与肥胖风险之间存在关联。[113] [114] [115]一项综述发现,73项研究中有63项(86%)显示儿童肥胖率随着媒体暴露增加而增加,其中费率与观看电视的时间成比例增加。[116]

遗传学
主要文章:肥胖的遗传学
倾斜反对桌的深色头发的桃红色cheeked肥胖裸体年轻女性的绘画。 她左手拿着葡萄和葡萄叶,覆盖着她的生殖器。

A 1680 painting by Juan Carreno de Miranda of a girl presumed to have Prader–Willi syndrome[117]

A 1680 painting by Juan Carreno de Miranda of a girl presumed to have Prader–Willi syndrome[117]

胡安·卡雷诺·德·米兰达(Juan Carreno de Miranda)1680年的一幅女孩被认为患有普拉德 - 威利综合征[117]

与许多其他疾病一样,肥胖是遗传和环境因素相互作用的结果。[118]当存在足够的食物能量时,控制食欲和代谢的各种基因中的多态性易于导致肥胖。截至2006年,当存在有利环境时,人类基因组中超过41个这些网站与肥胖的发展有关。[119]已发现FTO基因的两个拷贝(脂肪量和肥胖相关基因)的人平均体重增加3-4公斤,与没有风险等位基因的人相比,肥胖风险增加1.67倍。[120]由遗传引起的人群之间BMI的差异取决于所检查的人口的6%至85%。[121]

肥胖是几种综合征的主要特征,例如Prader-Willi综合征,Bardet-Biedl综合征,Cohen综合征和MOMO综合征。 (术语“非综合征性肥胖症”有时用于排除这些病症。)[122]对于早发性严重肥胖的人(由10岁以前发病和体重指数超过正常三个标准差定义) ,7%有单点DNA突变。[123]

专注于遗传模式而不是特定基因的研究发现,两个肥胖父母的后代中有80%也是肥胖,相比之下,两个父母体重正常的后代不到10%。[124]暴露于同一环境的不同人群由于其潜在的遗传因素而具有不同的肥胖风险。[125]

节俭的基因假说假设,由于人类进化过程中的饮食稀缺,人们容易发生肥胖。他们通过将能量储存为脂肪来利用稀有时期的能力在食物供应变化的时期是有利的,具有更多脂肪储备的个体更有可能在饥荒中存活。然而,这种储存脂肪的趋势在食品供应稳定的社会中是不适应的。[126]这一理论受到了各种各样的批评,其他基于进化论的理论,如嗜水基因假说和节俭表型假说也被提出。[127] [128]

其他疾病
某些身体和精神疾病以及用于治疗它们的药物可能会增加肥胖的风险。增加肥胖风险的医学疾病包括几种罕见的遗传综合征(如上所列)以及一些先天性或后天性疾病:甲状腺功能减退症,库欣综合征,生长激素缺乏症,[129]和进食障碍:暴食症和夜间进食综合症。 2]然而,肥胖不被视为精神疾病,因此未在DSM-IVR中列为精神疾病。[130]精神疾病患者的超重和肥胖风险高于无精神疾病患者。[131]

某些药物可能会导致体重增加或身体成分发生变化;这些包括胰岛素,磺脲类,噻唑烷二酮类,非典型抗精神病药,抗抑郁药,类固醇,某些抗惊厥药(苯妥英和丙戊酸盐),pizotifen和某些形式的激素避孕药。[2]

社会决定因素
主要文章:肥胖的社会决定因素

The disease scroll (Yamai no soshi, late 12th century) depicts a woman moneylender with obesity, con ...

The disease scroll (Yamai no soshi, late 12th century) depicts a woman moneylender with obesity, con ...

疾病卷轴(Yamai no soshi,12世纪晚期)描绘了一个肥胖的女性放债者,被认为是富人的疾病。

虽然遗传影响对于理解肥胖很重要,但它们无法解释目前在特定国家或全球范围内出现的急剧增长。[132]虽然人们普遍认为能量消耗超过能量消耗导致个体肥胖,但这两个因素在社会规模上的变化的原因却引起了很多争议。关于原因有许多理论,但大多数人认为它是各种因素的综合。

社会阶层和BMI之间的相关性在全球范围内变化。 1989年的一项综述发现,在发达国家,社会阶层较高的女性肥胖的可能性较小。不同社会阶层的男性之间没有显着差异。在发展中国家,来自高级社会阶层的妇女,男子和儿童的肥胖率更高。[133] 2007年进行的这项审查的更新发现了相同的关系,但它们较弱。人们认为,相关力量的下降是由于全球化的影响。[134]在发达国家中,成人肥胖水平和超重儿童的百分比与收入不平等相关。在美国各州之间也存在类似的关系:即使在较高的社会阶层,更多的成年人在更不平等的州也会肥胖。[135]

对于BMI和社会阶层之间的关联,已经提出了许多解释。据认为,在发达国家,富人能够负担得起更有营养的食物,他们面临更大的社会压力,要保持苗条,并有更多的机会以及对身体健康的更大期望。在欠发达国家,人们认为能够负担得起食物的能力,体力劳动的高能量消耗以及有利于更大体型的文化价值观,这些都有助于观察到的模式。[134]人们在一个人的生活中对体重的态度也可能在肥胖中发挥作用。在朋友,兄弟姐妹和配偶之间发现了BMI随时间变化的相关性。[136]压力和低社会地位似乎会增加肥胖的风险。[135] [137] [138]

吸烟对个人体重有显着影响。戒烟者男性平均增加4.4公斤(9.7磅),十年女性平均增加5.0公斤(11.0磅)。[139]然而,改变吸烟率对肥胖的总体发生率影响不大。[140]

在美国,一个人的孩子数量与他们患肥胖的风险有关。女性的风险每名儿童增加7%,而男性每名儿童的风险增加4%。[141]这可以部分解释为,让受抚养子女减少西方父母的身体活动。[142]

在发展中国家,城市化正在增加肥胖率。在中国,整体肥胖率低于5%;但是,在一些城市,肥胖率超过20%。[143]

据信,早年生活中的营养不良会在发展中国家肥胖率上升中发挥作用。[144]在营养不良期间发生的内分泌变化可能会促进脂肪的储存,再次获得食物能量。[144]

与认知流行病学数据一致,许多研究证实肥胖与认知缺陷有关。[145]目前尚不清楚肥胖是否会导致认知缺陷,反之亦然。

肠道细菌
另见:不孕
关于感染因子对代谢的影响的研究仍处于早期阶段。肠道菌群已被证明在瘦人和肥胖人之间存在差异。有迹象表明,肥胖和瘦弱个体的肠道菌群会影响代谢潜力。这种代谢潜力的明显改变被认为赋予了更大的能量来收获导致肥胖的能量。这些差异是否是导致肥胖的直接原因或结果尚未明确确定。[146]儿童使用抗生素也与以后的肥胖有关。[147]

在人类和几种不同的动物物种中发现了病毒和肥胖之间的关联。这些协会可能导致肥胖率上升的数量尚未确定。[148]

病理生理学
两只白老鼠,耳朵大小,黑眼圈,粉红色子。但是,左侧鼠标的主体宽度约为右侧正常尺寸鼠标的三倍。

A comparison of a mouse unable to produce leptin thus resulting in obesity (left) and a normal mouse ...

A comparison of a mouse unable to produce leptin thus resulting in obesity (left) and a normal mouse ...

比较小鼠不能产生瘦素从而导致肥胖(左)和正常小鼠(右)

主要文章:肥胖的病理生理学
肥胖的发展和维持涉及许多可能的病理生理机制。[149]直到1994年由J. M. Friedman的实验室发现了leptin基因,这个研究领域几乎没有得到批准。[150]虽然瘦素和生长素释放肽是在外周产生的,但它们通过对中枢神经系统的作用来控制食欲。特别是,它们和其他食欲相关的激素作用于下丘脑,下丘脑是调节食物摄入和能量消耗的核心区域。下丘脑中有几个回路有助于其整合食欲,黑皮质素途径是最容易理解的。[149]该循环开始于下丘脑区域,即弓状核,其分别向下丘脑外侧(LH)和腹内侧下丘脑(VMH),大脑的进食和饱腹感中心输出[151]。

弓状核包含两组不同的神经元。[149]第一组共表达神经肽Y(NPY)和刺豚鼠相关肽(AgRP),并具有对LH的刺激性输入和对VMH的抑制性输入。第二组共表达促阿黑皮素原(POMC)和可卡因和苯丙胺调节的转录物(CART),并且具有对VMH的刺激性输入和对LH的抑制性输入。因此,NPY / AgRP神经元刺激摄食并抑制饱腹感,而POMC / CART神经元刺激饱腹感并抑制摄食。两组弓状核神经元均由瘦蛋白部分调节。 Leptin抑制NPY / AgRP组,同时刺激POMC / CART组。因此,瘦素信号传导的缺乏,或者通过瘦素缺乏或瘦蛋白抗性,导致过度喂养,并且可能导致一些遗传和后天形式的肥胖。[149]

公共卫生
世界卫生组织(WHO)预测,超重和肥胖可能很快取代营养不良和传染病等更传统的公共卫生问题,成为健康状况不佳的最重要原因。[152]肥胖是一种公共卫生和政策问题,因为它的普遍性,成本和健康影响。[153]美国预防服务工作队建议对所有成年人进行筛查,然后对肥胖者进行行为干预。[154]公共卫生工作旨在了解和纠正造成人口肥胖增加的环境因素。解决方案着眼于改变导致食物能量消耗过多的因素并抑制身体活动。努力包括在学校提供联邦报销的膳食计划,限制直接向儿童推销垃圾食品,[155]并减少学校获得含糖饮料的机会。[156]世界卫生组织建议对含糖饮料征税。[157]在建设城市环境时,已作出努力,增加进入公园的途径,并发展行人路线。[158]

报告
许多组织发布了有关肥胖的报告。 1998年,出版了第一份美国联邦指南,标题为“成人超重和肥胖的鉴定,评估和治疗临床指南:证据报告”。[159] 2006年,加拿大肥胖网络(现称加拿大肥胖症)发布了“关于成人和儿童肥胖管理和预防的加拿大临床实践指南(CPG)”。这是一项全面的循证指南,旨在解决成人和儿童超重和肥胖的管理和预防问题。[81]

2004年,英国皇家内科医师学院,公共卫生学院和皇家儿科和儿童健康学院发布了“存储问题”报告,该报告强调了英国日益严重的肥胖问题。[160]同年,下议院卫生专责委员会发表了“有史以来最全面的研究”,探讨肥胖对英国健康和社会的影响以及可能解决问题的方法。[161] 2006年,国家健康与临床卓越研究所(NICE)发布了关于肥胖诊断和管理的指南,以及对地方议会等非医疗保健组织的政策影响。[162] Derek Wanless为国王基金会发布的2007年报告警告说,除非采取进一步行动,否则肥胖有能力在财政上削弱国民健康服务。[163]

正在研究综合方法来解决肥胖率上升的问题。肥胖政策行动(OPA)框架将措施划分为“上游”政策,“中游”政策,“下游”政策。 “上游”政策着眼于改变社会,“中游”政策试图改变个人的行为以防止肥胖,而“下游”政策试图治疗目前受折磨的人。[164]

管理
主要文章:肥胖管理
肥胖的主要治疗方法包括节食和体育锻炼。[81]饮食计划可能会在短期内减轻体重[165],但保持这种减肥通常很困难,往往需要将运动和较低的食物能量饮食作为一个人生活方式的永久部分。[166] [167]

在短期内,低碳水化合物饮食似乎比低脂饮食更适合减肥。[168]在长期;然而,所有类型的低碳水化合物和低脂肪饮食都同样有益。[168] [169] 2014年的一项审查发现,与不同饮食相关的心脏病和糖尿病风险似乎相似。[170]在肥胖人群中推广地中海饮食可以降低患心脏病的风险。[168]减少甜饮料的摄入量也与减肥有关。[168]生活方式改变的长期减重维持成功率很低,为2-20%。[171]饮食和生活方式的改变可以有效地限制怀孕期间过多的体重增加,并改善母亲和孩子的结果。[172]对于既肥胖又有其他心脏病危险因素的人,建议进行强化行为辅导。[173]

五种药物有长期使用奥利司他,氯卡色林,利拉鲁肽,芬特明 - 托吡酯和纳曲酮 - 安非他酮的证据。[174]与安慰剂相比,它们在一年后导致体重减轻3.0至6.7千克(6.6-14.8磅)。[174]奥利司他,利拉鲁肽和纳曲酮 - 安非他酮均可在美国和欧洲使用,而氯卡色林和芬特明 - 托吡酯仅在美国有售。[175]欧洲监管当局拒绝接受后两种药物,部分原因是心脏瓣膜问题与氯卡色林有关,以及芬特明 - 托吡酯更常见的心脏和血管问题。[175]奥利司他的使用与胃肠道副作用的高发率有关[176],并且人们对肾脏的负面影响提出了担忧。[177]没有关于这些药物如何影响肥胖等长期并发症的信息,如心血管疾病或死亡。[5]

肥胖最有效的治疗方法是减肥手术。[6]手术类型包括腹腔镜可调节胃束带术,Roux-en-Y胃旁路术,垂直袖套胃切除术和胆胰转移术[174]。严重肥胖的手术与长期体重减轻,肥胖相关疾病的改善,[178]和总体死亡率降低有关。一项研究发现,与标准体重减轻措施相比,10年时体重减轻了14%至25%(取决于所执行的手术类型),并且所有原因死亡率降低了29%。[179]大约17%的病例出现并发症,7%的病例需要再次手术。[178]由于其成本和风险,研究人员正在寻找其他有效但侵入性较小的治疗方法,包括占据胃内空间的装置。[180]

流行病学
主要文章:肥胖的流行病学

World obesity prevalence among males (left) and females (right) in 2008.[181].jpg
2008年男性(左)和女性(右)的世界肥胖患病率。[181]

Percentage of the population either overweight or obese by year.[182]

Percentage of the population either overweight or obese by year.[182]

年人口超重或肥胖的百分比。[182]

在早期的历史时期,肥胖是罕见的,只有少数精英才能实现,尽管已经被认为是健康问题。但随着近代早期的繁荣增加,它影响了越来越多的人口群体。[183]

1997年,世卫组织正式承认肥胖是一种全球流行病。[94]截至2008年,世卫组织估计至少有5亿成人(超过10%)肥胖,女性比男性高。[184]截至2015 - 2016年,美国受影响成年人的比例约为39.6%(男性占37.9%,女性占41.1%)。[185]

肥胖率也随着年龄的增长而增加,至少达到50或60岁[186],美国,澳大利亚和加拿大的严重肥胖增长速度超过了整体肥胖率[29] [187] [188]。 ]

一度被认为只是高收入国家的问题,全世界的肥胖率正在上升,并影响到发达国家和发展中国家。[44]在城市环境中,这些增长最为显着。[184]世界上唯一一个肥胖不常见的地区是撒哈拉以南非洲地区。[2]

历史
词源
肥胖来自拉丁文obesitas,意思是“粗壮,肥胖或丰满”。 ēsus是edere(吃饭)的过去分词,加上ob(over)。[189]牛津英语词典记录了Randle Cotgrave在1611年的首次使用。[190]

历史态度
一个非常肥胖的绅士,有一个突出的双下巴和胡子,黑色,左侧有一把剑。

During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance obesity was often seen as a sign of wealth, and was relat ...

During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance obesity was often seen as a sign of wealth, and was relat ...

在中世纪和文艺复兴时期,肥胖往往被视为财富的象征,在精英中相对普遍:托斯卡纳将军亚历山德罗·德尔博罗,归功于查尔斯·梅林,1645年[191]

雕刻的石头微型雕像描绘了肥胖的女性。

Venus of Willendorf created 24,000–22,000 BC

Venus of Willendorf created 24,000–22,000 BC

维伦多夫的维纳斯创造了公元前24,000-22,000

古希腊医学认为肥胖是一种医学疾病,并且记录了古埃及人以同样的方式看待它。[183]希波克拉底写道:“肥胖本身不仅仅是一种疾病,而是其他人的先兆”。[2]印度外科医生Sushruta(公元前6世纪)将肥胖与糖尿病和心脏疾病联系起来。[192]他建议身体上的工作来帮助治愈它及其副作用。[192]在人类历史的大部分时间里,人类都在为粮食短缺而苦苦挣扎。[193]因此,历史上肥胖被视为财富和繁荣的标志。欧洲的高级官员在中世纪和文艺复兴时期[191]以及古代东亚文明中都很常见。[194]在17世纪,英国医学作家托比亚斯·维纳纳(Tobias Venner)被认为是最早在一本出版的英语书中将这一术语称为社会疾病的人之一。[183]​​ [195]

随着工业革命的开始,人们意识到各国的军事和经济实力都取决于其士兵和工人的体型和力量。[94]将现在被视为体重不足的平均体重指数增加到现在的正常范围,对工业化社会的发展起了重要作用。[94]因此,在发达国家,高度和重量都增加到了19世纪。在20世纪,随着人口达到其身高的遗传潜力,体重开始增加远高于身高,导致肥胖。[94]在20世纪50年代,发达国家的财富增加降低了儿童死亡率,但随着体重的增加,心脏和肾脏疾病变得更加普遍。[94] [196]在此期间,保险公司意识到体重和预期寿命之间的关系以及肥胖人群的保费增加。[2]

历史上的许多文化都将肥胖视为性格缺陷的结果。古希腊喜剧中的ob or或肥胖人物是贪婪和嘲弄的人物。在基督教时代,食物被视为通往懒惰和欲望罪恶的门户。[15]在现代西方文化中,超重通常被认为是没有吸引力的,肥胖通常与各种负面刻板印象有关。所有年龄段的人都可能面临社会耻辱,并可能成为恶霸的目标或被同龄人躲避。[197]

西方社会关于健康体重的公众认知与那些被认为是理想体重的公众认知不同 - 自20世纪初以来,两者都发生了变化。自20世纪20年代以来,被视为理想的重量已经降低。事实上,美国小姐选美大赛的平均身高从1922年到1999年增加了2%,而平均体重则下降了12%。[198]另一方面,人们对健康体重的看法却发生了相反的变化。在英国,人们认为自己超重的体重在2007年明显高于1999年。[199]这些变化被认为是由于肥胖率的增加导致额外体脂的接受度增加,这是正常的。[199]

肥胖仍被视为非洲许多地区财富和福祉的标志。自艾滋病毒流行开始以来,这已经变得特别普遍。[2]

艺术
2万至3万5千年前人体的第一次雕塑表现描绘了肥胖的女性。有些人认为金星俑有强调生育能力的倾向,而有些人认为它们代表了当时人们的“肥胖”。[15]然而,在希腊和罗马艺术中都缺乏肥胖,可能与他们关于温和的理想保持一致。这种情况一直延续到基督教欧洲历史的大部分时期,只有社会经济地位较低的人被描述为肥胖。[15]

在文艺复兴时期,一些上层阶级开始炫耀他们的大尺寸,如英格兰亨利八世和亚历山德罗达尔博罗的肖像所示。[15]鲁本斯(1577-1640)经常在他的照片中描绘出身体强壮的女性,从中衍生出鲁本尼克一词。然而,这些女性仍然保持着“沙漏”形状与生育能力的关系。[200]在19世纪,西方世界对肥胖的看法发生了变化。经过几个世纪的肥胖与财富和社会地位的同义,苗条开始被视为理想的标准。[15]

社会与文化
经济影响
除了健康影响之外,肥胖还会导致许多问题,包括就业方面的不利因素[201] [202]和增加的商业成本。从个人,企业到政府,社会各阶层都能感受到这些影响。

2005年,美国肥胖造成的医疗费用估计为1902亿美元,占所有医疗支出的20.6%,[203] [204] [205]而1997年加拿大肥胖费用估计为20亿加元(占总医疗费用的2.4%)。[81] 2005年澳大利亚超重和肥胖的年度直接成本总额为210亿澳元。超重和肥胖的澳大利亚人也获得了356亿澳元的政府补贴。[206]仅在美国,减肥产品的年度支出估计范围为400亿至1,000亿美元。[207]

已经发现肥胖预防计划降低了治疗肥胖相关疾病的成本。然而,人们生活的时间越长,他们承担的医疗费用就越多。因此,研究人员得出结论,减少肥胖可能会改善公众的健康状况,但不大可能减少整体医疗支出。[208]

宽大的椅子旁边有许多普通尺寸的椅子。

Services must accommodate obese people with specialist equipment such as much wider chairs.[209]

Services must accommodate obese people with specialist equipment such as much wider chairs.[209]

服务必须为肥胖人士提供专业设备,例如更宽的椅子。[209]

肥胖会导致社会耻辱和就业不利。[201]与正常体重的同龄人相比,肥胖工人平均工作缺勤率较高,残疾假更多,从而增加了雇主的成本,降低了生产力。[210]一项对杜克大学员工进行的调查发现,体重指数超过40公斤/平方米的人提出的工伤赔偿金额是BMI为18.5-24.9公斤/平方米的人的两倍。他们失去的工作日数也是失业人数的12倍多。这组中最常见的伤害是跌倒和抬起,从而影响下肢,手腕或手背,[211]阿拉巴马州雇员保险委员会批准了一项有争议的计划,每月向肥胖工人收取25美元的健康保险费,除非他们采取措施减肥并改善健康,否则这些健康保险将是免费的。这些措施于2010年1月开始实施,适用于体重指数超过35公斤/平方米且一年后未能改善健康状况的国家工人。[212]

一些研究表明,肥胖人士不太可能被聘用,而且晋升的可能性较小。[197]对于同等的工作,肥胖的人的薪酬也低于非肥胖的人。肥胖女性平均减少6%,肥胖男性减少3%。[213]

特定行业,如航空公司,医疗保健和食品行业,都有特殊的顾虑。由于肥胖率上升,航空公司面临更高的燃料成本和增加座位宽度的压力。[214] 2000年,肥胖乘客的额外体重使航空公司损失2.75亿美元。[215]医疗保健行业不得不投资于处理严重肥胖病人的特殊设施,包括特殊起重设备和肥胖救护车。[216]餐馆的成本因诉讼指控导致肥胖而增加。[217] 2005年,美国国会讨论了立法,以防止与肥胖有关的针对食品行业的民事诉讼;但是,它没有成为法律。[217]

随着美国医学会2013年将肥胖列为慢性病[16],人们认为健康保险公司更有可能为肥胖治疗,咨询和手术以及脂肪治疗药物或基因疗法的研发成本付出代价。如果保险公司有助于补贴其费用,治疗应该更便宜。[218]然而,AMA分类不具有法律约束力,因此健康保险公司仍有权拒绝治疗或手术的覆盖范围。[218]

2014年,欧洲法院裁定病态肥胖是一种残疾。法院表示,如果雇员的肥胖妨碍他“在与其他工人平等的基础上充分和有效地参与职业生活”,那么它将被视为残疾,并且基于此理由解雇某人是歧视性的。[219] ]

尺寸验收

United States President William Howard Taft was often ridiculed for being overweight

United States President William Howard Taft was often ridiculed for being overweight

美国总统威廉霍华德塔夫脱因为超重而经常被嘲笑

另见:肥胖接受运动,肥胖的社会耻辱,各种规模的健康和脂肪拜物教
脂肪接受运动的主要目标是减少对超重和肥胖者的歧视。[220] [221]然而,该运动中的一些人也试图挑战肥胖与负面健康结果之间的既定关系。[222]

存在许多促进肥胖接受的组织。它们在20世纪下半叶的地位日益突出。[223]总部设在美国的全国促进脂肪接受协会(NAAFA)于1969年成立,并将自己描述为一个致力于终止规模歧视的民权组织。[224]

国际规模接受协会(ISAA)是一个非政府组织(非政府组织),成立于1997年。它更具全球导向,并将其使命描述为促进规模接受和帮助结束基于体重的歧视。[225]根据美国残疾人美国法案(ADA),这些群体经常主张将肥胖视为残疾。然而,美国法律体系已经决定,潜在的公共卫生成本超过了扩大这项反歧视法以涵盖肥胖的好处。[222]

行业对研究的影响
2015年,“纽约时报”发表了一篇关于全球能源平衡网络的文章,该网络是一家成立于2014年的非营利组织,致力于让人们专注于增加运动量而不是减少卡路里摄入量以避免肥胖并保持健康。该组织由可口可乐公司提供至少150万美元的资金,该公司自2008年以来为两位创始科学家Gregory A. Hand和Steven N. Blair提供了400万美元的研究经费。[226] [227] ]

童年肥胖
主要文章:儿童肥胖
健康的BMI范围随着孩子的年龄和性别而变化。儿童和青少年的肥胖被定义为BMI大于第95百分位数。[23]这些百分位数所依据的参考数据是从1963年到1994年,因此没有受到最近肥胖率上升的影响。[24]儿童肥胖在21世纪已达到流行病的程度,发达国家和发展中国家的儿童肥胖率都在上升。加拿大男孩的肥胖率从20世纪80年代的11%上升到20世纪90年代的30%以上,而在同一时期,巴西儿童的肥胖率从4%上升到14%。[228]

与成人肥胖一样,许多因素导致儿童肥胖率上升。改变饮食和减少身体活动被认为是最近儿童肥胖发病率增加的两个最重要原因。[229]由于儿童肥胖常常持续到成年期并且与许多慢性疾病有关,因此肥胖的儿童经常接受高血压,糖尿病,高脂血症和脂肪肝的检测。[81]儿童使用的治疗主要是生活方式干预和行为技巧,尽管增加儿童活动的努力收效甚微。[230]在美国,药物未获FDA批准用于该年龄组。[228]包括饮食和身体活动变化在内的多成分行为改变干预措施可能会在6至11岁的儿童中短期内降低BMI,尽管其益处很小且证据质量很低。[231]

其他动物
主要文章:宠物肥胖
宠物肥胖在许多国家很常见。在美国,23-41%的狗超重,约5.1%是肥胖。[232]猫的肥胖率略高,为6.4%。[232]在澳大利亚,兽医环境中狗的肥胖率为7.6%。[233]狗的肥胖风险与其主人是否肥胖有关;然而,猫与其拥有者之间并无类似的相关性。[234]

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