找回密码
 注册

大疱性鼓膜炎(中耳炎)

作者:大江 | 时间:2019-3-26 00:03:15 | 阅读:748| 显示全部楼层
炎是一组中耳炎症性疾病。[2]两种主要类型是急性中耳炎(AOM)和伴有积液的中耳炎(OME)。[3] AOM是一种快速发作的感染,通常表现为耳痛。[1]在幼儿中,这可能会导致耳朵拉扯,哭闹增加,睡眠不佳。[1]也可能出现减少进食和发烧的情况。[1] OME通常与症状无关。[1]偶尔会有一种饱满的感觉。[4]它被定义为中耳中存在非感染性液体超过三个月。[4]慢性化脓性中耳炎(CSOM)是一种超过两周的中耳炎症,导致耳部放电[4]。它可能是急性中耳炎的并发症。[4]疼痛很少出现。[4]这三者都可能与听力损失有关。[2] [3] OME的听力损失由于其慢性特征,可能会影响孩子的学习能力。[4]

AOM的原因与儿童解剖和免疫功能有关。[4]可能涉及细菌或病毒。[4]风险因素包括接触烟雾,使用安抚奶嘴和参加日托。[4]它更常见于土着人民和患有唐氏综合症的人。[4] [7] OME经常发生在AOM之后,可能与病毒性上呼吸道感染,烟雾或过敏等刺激物有关。[3] [4]观察耳膜对于做出正确的诊断非常重要。[8] AOM的迹象包括鼓膜鼓膜或鼓膜不能从一阵空气中移动。[1] [9]与外耳炎无关的新分泌物也表明诊断。[1]

许多措施降低了中耳炎的风险,包括炎球菌和流感疫苗接种,母乳喂养和避免吸烟。[1]对AOM使用止痛药很重要。[1]这可能包括对乙酰氨基酚(对乙酰氨基酚),布洛芬,苯佐卡因滴耳液或阿片类药物。[1]在AOM中,抗生素可以加速康复,但可能会导致副作用。[10]对于患有严重疾病或两岁以下的人,通常建议使用抗生素。[9]对于病情较轻的患者,可能只建议那些在两三天后不能改善的患者。[9]最初选择的抗生素通常是阿莫西林。[1]在频繁感染的患者中,鼓膜造口术可减少复发[1]。在患有中耳炎的儿童中,抗生素可能会增加症状的消退,但可能导致腹泻,呕吐和皮疹[11]。

全球AOM每年影响约11%的人(约325至7.1亿个病例)。[12] [13]一半的病例涉及5岁以下的儿童,在男性中更常见。[4] [12]受影响的人中约有4.8%或3100万患有慢性化脓性中耳炎[12]。在十岁之前,OME在某些时候影响了大约80%的儿童。[4]中耳炎在2015年导致3,200例死亡 - 低于1990年的4,900例死亡。[6] [14]

A bulging tympanic membrane which is typical in a case of acute otitis media.jpg
鼓膜鼓胀是急性中耳炎的典型症状

内容
1 症状和体征
2 原因
3 诊断
3.1 急性中耳炎
3.2 中耳炎伴有积液
3.3 慢性化脓性中耳炎
3.4 粘连性中耳炎
4 防治
5 管理
5.1 抗生素
5.2 鼓室造口管
5.3 有积液的中耳炎
5.4 替代医学
6 成果
6.1 膜破裂
6.2 听力损失
7 流行病学
8 词源
9 参考

体征和症状

Otitis media..png
中耳炎。
急性中耳炎的一个不可或缺的症状是耳痛;其他可能的症状包括发烧和烦躁(婴儿)。由于中耳炎的发作通常是由上呼吸道感染(URTI)引起的,因此常伴有咳嗽和涕等症状[15]。

从耳朵中排出物可由急性中耳炎引起,耳膜穿孔,慢性化脓性中耳炎,鼓膜穿刺管耳漏或急性外耳炎。创伤,例如基底颅骨骨折,也可能由于大脑及其覆盖物(脑膜)的脑脊髓引流而导致耳朵排出。

原因
所有形式的中耳炎的常见原因是咽鼓管功能障碍。[16]这通常是由于鼻咽部粘膜的炎症,这可能是由病毒性URTI,链球菌性咽喉炎或可能由过敏引起的。[17]由于咽鼓管功能障碍,中耳中的气体被捕获,部分被周围组织缓慢吸收,导致中耳负压。最终,负中耳压力可以达到这样的程度,即来自周围组织的液体被吸入中耳腔(鼓室),引起中耳积液。这被视为从A型鼓室图到C型到B型鼓室图的进展。

通过回流或将不需要的分泌物从鼻咽吸入正常无菌的中耳空间,流体可能会被感染 - 通常是细菌。引起初始URI(上呼吸道感染)的病毒本身可以被识别为引起感染的病原体。[17]

诊断

Perforation of the right tympanic membrane resulting from a previous severe acut.jpg
由先前的严重急性中耳炎引起的右鼓膜的穿孔
由于其典型症状与其他病症(如急性外耳炎)重叠,单靠临床病史不足以预测是否存在急性中耳炎;它必须通过鼓膜的可视化来补充。[18] [19]检查者使用带有橡胶球的气动耳镜来评估鼓膜的活动性。

在更严重的情况下,例如伴有听力损失或高烧的患者,听力测定,鼓室图,颞骨CT和MRI可用于评估相关并发症,如乳突积液,骨膜下脓肿形成,骨质破坏,静脉血栓形成或脑膜炎[20]

急性中耳炎患儿中度至重度鼓膜鼓胀或新发耳漏(引流)不是由于外耳炎。此外,可以对耳鼓轻度鼓胀和最近耳痛发作(小于48小时)或耳鼓强烈红斑(发红)的儿童进行诊断。

为了确诊,必须确定中耳积液和耳膜炎症;这些迹象是耳膜的饱满,膨胀,浑浊和发红。[15]尝试区分急性中耳炎和中耳炎伴有积液(OME)非常重要,因为不推荐使用抗生素治疗OME [15]。有人提出,鼓膜鼓胀是区分AOM和OME的最佳标志,膜的膨胀表明AOM而不是OME。[21]

病毒性中耳炎可能导致鼓膜外侧出现水疱,称为大疱性鼓膜炎(myringa拉丁文为“耳膜”)。[22]

然而,有时甚至检查鼓膜可能无法确认诊断,特别是如果管道很小。如果耳道中的蜡模糊了鼓膜的清晰视野,则应使用钝的耳垢刮匙或线圈将其除去。此外,一个不安的幼儿哭闹可能会导致鼓膜由于其上的小血管扩张而发炎,模仿与中耳炎相关的发红。

急性中耳炎
从AOM中耳分离出的最常见的细菌是肺炎链球菌,流感嗜血杆菌,卡他莫拉菌[15]和金黄色葡萄球菌[23]。

中耳炎有积液
有积液的中耳炎(OME),又称浆液性中耳炎(SOM)或分泌性中耳炎(SOM),俗称“胶耳”[24],可能发生在中耳和乳突中的液体积聚由于咽鼓管功能障碍产生的负压引起的气囊。这可能与病毒性URI或细菌感染有关,如中耳炎[25]。如果积液干扰中耳骨骼的振动传播到由声波产生的前庭神经复合体,则会导致传导性听力损失。[26]

早发性OME与婴儿躺卧时喂养,早期进入组儿童保健,父母吸烟,缺乏或母乳喂养时间过短以及在团体儿童保育中花费的时间更长,特别是那些大量儿童孩子的。这些风险因素增加了生命最初两年内OME的发生率和持续时间。[27]

慢性化脓性中耳炎
慢性化脓性中耳炎(CSOM)是中耳和乳突腔的慢性炎症,其特征在于从中耳通过穿孔鼓膜排出至少6周。 CSOM发生在上呼吸道感染后,导致急性中耳炎。这进展为延长的炎症反应,引起粘膜(中耳)水肿,溃疡和穿孔。中耳试图通过产生肉芽组织和息肉形成来解决这种溃疡。这可能导致放电增加和阻止炎症的失败,以及CSOM的发展,CSOM也常常与胆脂瘤相关。可能有足够的脓液流到耳朵外面(耳漏),或者脓液可能是最小的,只有在用耳镜或双目显微镜检查时才能看到。听力障碍通常伴随着这种疾病。

当患有咽鼓管功能不佳,急性中耳炎多次发作,生活在拥挤的环境中,以及参加儿科日托设施时,人们患CSOM的风险增加。患有颅面畸形的患者,如唇腭裂,唐氏综合症和小头畸形,风险较高。

全世界约有11%的人口每年受到AOM的影响,或7.09亿病例。[12] [28] 大约4.4%的人口患有CSOM。[28]

根据世界卫生组织的说法,CSOM是儿童听力损失的主要原因。[29] 反复发作的CSOM患者发生永久性传导性和感觉神经性听力损失的风险较高。

在英国,0.9%的儿童和0.5%的成年人患有CSOM,两性之间没有差异。[29]

在高收入国家流行率相对较低的情况下,全球CSOM的发病率差别很大,而在低收入国家,患病率可能高达三倍。[12]

每年全球有21,000人因CSOM并发症而死亡。[29]

粘性中耳炎
当薄的缩回的耳鼓被吸入中耳空间并粘附(即粘附)到听小骨和中耳的其他骨头时,发生粘性中耳炎。

Acute otitis media.jpg
急性中耳炎

Acute otitis media, myringitis bullosa.jpg
急性中耳炎,大疱性鼓膜炎

Myringitis bullosa in influenza.jpg
流行性感冒的大疱炎

Chronic otitis media (otitis media chronica mesotympanalis).jpg
慢性中耳炎(中耳炎慢性中耳炎)

Otitis media chronica mesotympanalis1.jpg
中耳炎慢性中耳炎

Otitis media chronica mesotympanalis.jpg
慢性中耳炎

Otitis media chronica mesotympanalis2.jpg
中耳炎慢性中耳炎

预防
AOM在母乳喂养的婴儿中比在配方奶喂养的婴儿中少得多,[30]并且在出生后的前六个月中,最大的保护与纯母乳喂养(不使用配方奶粉)有关。[1]较长的母乳喂养持续时间与较长的保护作用相关。[30]

婴儿早期的肺炎球菌结合疫苗(PCV)可降低健康婴儿急性中耳炎的风险。[31]建议所有儿童使用PCV,如果广泛实施,PCV将具有重大的公共健康益处。[15]儿童流感疫苗接种似乎可使AOM的发生率降低4%,抗生素使用率降低11%。[32]然而,疫苗导致发烧和流鼻涕等不良反应增加。[32] AOM的少量减少可能无法证明每年仅为此目的接种流感疫苗的副作用和不便。[32] PCV似乎不会降低高风险婴儿或之前经历过中耳炎的年龄较大儿童的中耳炎风险。[31]

已知诸如季节,过敏倾向和年长兄弟姐妹的存在等风险因素是复发性中耳炎和持续性中耳积液(MEE)的决定因素。[33]复发,环境暴露于烟草烟雾,使用日托和缺乏母乳喂养的历史都与发展,复发和持续MEE的风险增加有关。[34] [35]安抚奶嘴的使用与更频繁的AOM事件有关。[36]

长期抗生素虽然可以降低治疗期间的感染率,但对听力损失等长期结果的影响不明。[37]这种预防方法与抗生素抗性耳石细菌的出现有关。因此不推荐它们。[15]

有中等证据表明糖替代木糖醇可能会降低那些去日托的人的感染率。[38]

证据不支持补锌作为降低耳炎率的努力,除非可能是严重营养不良的人,如marasmus。[39]

管理
口服和局部止痛药可有效治疗中耳炎引起的疼痛。口服药物包括布洛芬,对乙酰氨基酚(对乙酰氨基酚)和阿片类药物。显示有效的局部药物包括安替比林和苯佐卡因滴耳液。[40]由于缺乏益处和对副作用的担忧,不推荐使用鼻腔或口服的减充血剂和抗组胺药。[41]儿童耳痛的一半病例在三天内无需治疗即可消退,七天或八天内有90%消退。[42]急性中耳炎的证据不支持使用类固醇。[43]

抗生素
在使用抗生素治疗急性中耳炎之前,重要的是要权衡利弊。超过82%的急性发作未经治疗而定居,大约20名儿童必须接受治疗以防止一例耳痛,33名儿童防止一次穿孔,11名儿童防止一侧对侧耳部感染。对于每14名接受抗生素治疗的儿童,一名儿童出现呕吐,腹泻或皮疹的情况。[10]如果存在疼痛,可以使用止痛药。

对于24个月以下婴儿的双侧急性中耳炎,有证据表明抗生素的益处大于危害。[10] 2015年Cochrane评价的结论是,对于非严重急性中耳炎患儿,观察等待是六个月以上儿童的首选方法。[44]

发现内容[44]
证据表明,大多数6个月以上患有急性中耳炎的儿童不能从抗生素治疗中获益。如果使用抗生素,通常建议使用阿莫西林。[15]如果在过去30天内有抗药性或使用阿莫西林,则建议使用阿莫西林 - 克拉维酸盐或其他青霉素衍生物加β内酰胺酶抑制剂。[15]每天服用阿莫西林一次可能有效一天两次[45]或三次。虽然不到7天的抗生素副作用较少,但超过7天似乎更有效。[46]如果治疗2-3天后没有改善,可考虑改变治疗方案。[15]

对于出院的慢性化脓性中耳炎的治疗选择是局部抗生素。 Cochrane评价发现局部喹诺酮类抗生素可以比口服抗生素更好地改善排出。[47]安全性并不十分清楚。[47]

鼓膜造口管
推荐使用鼓膜造口管(也称为“grommets”),在6个月内发生三次或更多次急性中耳炎,一年内发生四次或更多次发作,在过去的6个月内至少发生一次或更多发作。[15]有初步证据表明患有复发性急性中耳炎(AOM)的儿童接受管的进一步AOM发作次数略有改善(6个月时发作次数减少约一次,插管后12个月发作次数减少) [48]。[49]证据不支持对长期听力或语言发展的影响。[50] [49]使用鼓膜造口术管的一个常见并发症是耳漏,这是耳朵的排泄物。[51]儿童插入索环后持续性鼓膜穿孔的风险可能较低。[48]目前尚不确定扣眼是否比抗生素疗程更有效。[48]

口服抗生素不应用于治疗无并发症的急性鼓室造口术管耳漏[51]。它们不足以引起导致这种情况的细菌,并且具有副作用,包括增加机会性感染的风险。[51]相反,局部抗生素滴耳剂是有用的。[51]

中耳炎有积液
治疗的决定通常是在结合体检和实验室诊断后进行的,其他测试包括听力测定,鼓室图,颞骨CT和MRI。[52] [53] [54]减充血剂,[55]糖皮质激素[56]和局部抗生素通常不能有效治疗乳腺渗出的非感染性或浆液性。[52]此外,建议不要在患有OME的儿童中使用抗组胺药和减充血剂。[57]在不太严重的情况下或没有明显听力损伤的情况下,积液可以自发消退或采用更自然的措施,如自动通气[58] [59]。在更严重的情况下,可以插入鼓膜造口管,[50]可能进行辅助腺样体切除术[52],因为就OME患儿的中耳积液的消退而言,它显示出显著的益处。[60]

替代药物
对于有积液的中耳炎,不建议使用补充和替代药物,因为没有任何益处的证据。[25]在一项儿童研究中,顺势疗法尚未被证实对急性中耳炎有效[61]。在一项随机对照临床试验中评估了称为Galbreath技术[62]的整骨疗法操作技术;一位评论员认为这很有希望,但2010年的一份证据报告发现证据不确定。[63]

成果

2004年每10万居民中耳炎的残疾调整生命年。
Disability-adjusted life year for otitis media per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004..jpg

2012年每百万人中耳炎死亡
Deaths from otitis media per million persons in 2012.jpg

急性中耳炎的并发症包括耳鼓穿孔,耳后乳突区感染(乳突炎),更容易发生颅内并发症,如细菌性脑膜炎,脑脓肿或硬脑膜窦血栓形成[64]。据估计,每年有21,000人因中耳炎并发症而死亡。[12]

膜破裂
在严重或未经治疗的情况下,鼓膜可能穿孔,允许中耳空间中的脓液流入耳道。如果有足够的,这种排水可能是显而易见的。尽管鼓膜的穿孔表明是一种非常痛苦和创伤的过程,但它几乎总是伴随着压力和疼痛的显著缓解。在一个健康人的急性中耳炎的简单情况下,身体的防御可能会解决感染,耳鼓几乎总能愈合。对于镇痛药不控制耳痛的严重急性中耳炎的一种选择是进行鼓室穿刺,即通过鼓膜抽吸以减轻耳痛并识别致病微生物。

听力损失
反复发作的急性中耳炎患儿和中耳炎伴有积液或慢性化脓性中耳炎的儿童发生传导性和感觉神经性听力损失的风险较高。全球约有1.41亿人因中耳炎而导致轻度听力损失(占人口的2.1%)。[65]男性(2.3%)比女性(1.8%)更常见[65]。

这种听力损失主要是由于中耳液体或鼓膜破裂引起的。中耳炎持续时间过长与听骨并发症有关,并伴有持续的鼓膜穿孔,导致疾病的严重程度和听力丧失。当中耳中存在胆脂瘤或肉芽组织时,听力损失和听小骨破坏的程度甚至更大。[66]

中耳炎传导性听力损失的时期可能对儿童的言语发展产生不利影响。[67]一些研究将中耳炎与学习问题,注意力障碍和社会适应问题联系起来。[68]此外,已经证明,与听力正常的人相比,患有中耳炎的患者有更多的抑郁/焦虑相关疾病。[69]一旦感染消退并且听力阈值恢复正常,儿童中耳炎仍可能对中耳和耳蜗造成轻微且不可逆转的损害。[70]

流行病学
急性中耳炎在儿童期很常见。这是美国五岁以下儿童提供医疗服务的最常见条件。[17]急性中耳炎每年影响11%的人(7.09亿例),其中一半发生在5岁以下的人群中[12]。慢性化脓性中耳炎影响约5%或3100万这些病例,22.6%的病例每年发生在5岁以下。[12]中耳炎在2013年导致2,400人死亡,而1990年死亡人数为4,900人。[14]

词源
术语中耳炎由耳炎,古希腊语为“耳炎”和介质,拉丁语为“中”组成。

参考:
Lieberthal, AS; Carroll, AE; Chonmaitree, T; Ganiats, TG; Hoberman, A; Jackson, MA; Joffe, MD; Miller, DT; Rosenfeld, RM; Sevilla, XD; Schwartz, RH; Thomas, PA; Tunkel, DE (March 2013). "The diagnosis and management of acute otitis media". Pediatrics. 131 (3): e964–99. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-3488. PMID 23439909.
Qureishi, A; Lee, Y; Belfield, K; Birchall, JP; Daniel, M (10 January 2014). "Update on otitis media - prevention and treatment". Infection and Drug Resistance. 7: 15–24. doi:10.2147/IDR.S39637. PMC 3894142. PMID 24453496.
"Ear Infections". cdc.gov. September 30, 2013. Archived from the original on 19 February 2015. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
Minovi, A; Dazert, S (2014). "Diseases of the middle ear in childhood". GMS Current Topics in Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery. 13: Doc11. doi:10.3205/cto000114. PMC 4273172. PMID 25587371.
GBD 2015 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence, Collaborators. (8 October 2016). "Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015". Lancet. 388 (10053): 1545–1602. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6. PMC 5055577. PMID 27733282.
GBD 2015 Mortality and Causes of Death, Collaborators. (8 October 2016). "Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015". Lancet. 388 (10053): 1459–1544. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(16)31012-1. PMC 5388903. PMID 27733281.
"Ear disease in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children" (PDF). AIHW. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 12 May 2017.
Coker, TR; Chan, LS; Newberry, SJ; Limbos, MA; Suttorp, MJ; Shekelle, PG; Takata, GS (17 November 2010). "Diagnosis, microbial epidemiology, and antibiotic treatment of acute otitis media in children: a systematic review". JAMA. 304 (19): 2161–9. doi:10.1001/jama.2010.1651. PMID 21081729.
"Otitis Media: Physician Information Sheet (Pediatrics)". cdc.gov. November 4, 2013. Archived from the original on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
Venekamp, RP; Sanders, SL; Glasziou, PP; Del Mar, CB; Rovers, MM (23 June 2015). "Antibiotics for acute otitis media in children". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 6 (6): CD000219. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000219.pub4. PMID 26099233.
Venekamp, RP; Burton, MJ; van Dongen, TM; van der Heijden, GJ; van Zon, A; Schilder, AG (12 June 2016). "Antibiotics for otitis media with effusion in children". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (6): CD009163. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009163.pub3. PMID 27290722.
Monasta, L; Ronfani, L; Marchetti, F; Montico, M; Vecchi Brumatti, L; Bavcar, A; Grasso, D; Barbiero, C; Tamburlini, G (2012). "Burden of disease caused by otitis media: systematic review and global estimates". PLOS ONE. 7 (4): e36226. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036226. PMC 3340347. PMID 22558393.
Global Burden of Disease Study 2013, Collaborators (22 August 2015). "Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013". Lancet. 386 (9995): 743–800. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(15)60692-4. PMC 4561509. PMID 26063472.
GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death, Collaborators (17 December 2014). "Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013". Lancet. 385 (9963): 117–71. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2. PMC 4340604. PMID 25530442.
Lieberthal, AS; Carroll, AE; Chonmaitree, T; Ganiats, TG; Hoberman, A; Jackson, MA; Joffe, MD; Miller, DT; Rosenfeld, RM; Sevilla, XD; Schwartz, RH; Thomas, PA; Tunkel, DE (Feb 25, 2013). "The Diagnosis and Management of Acute Otitis Media". Pediatrics. 131 (3): e964–99. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-3488. PMID 23439909.
Bluestone, CD (2005). Eustachian tube: structure, function, role in otitis media. Hamilton, London: BC Decker. pp. 1–219. ISBN 9781550090666.
John D Donaldson. "Acute Otitis Media". Medscape. Archived from the original on 28 March 2013. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
Laine MK, Tähtinen PA, Ruuskanen O, Huovinen P, Ruohola A (May 2010). "Symptoms or symptom-based scores cannot predict acute otitis media at otitis-prone age". Pediatrics. 125 (5): e1154–61. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-2689. PMID 20368317.
Shaikh, Nader (2010). "Videos in clinical medicine. Diagnosing otitis media--otoscopy and cerumen removal". NEJM. 362 (20): e62. doi:10.1056/NEJMvcm0904397. PMID 20484393.
Patel, MM; Eisenberg, L; Witsell, D; Schulz, KA (October 2008). "Assessment of acute otitis externa and otitis media with effusion performance measures in otolaryngology practices". Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery. 139 (4): 490–494. doi:10.1016/j.otohns.2008.07.030. PMID 18922333.
Shaikh, N; et al. (March 28, 2012). "Development of an algorithm for the diagnosis of otitis media" (PDF). Academic Pediatrics (Submitted manuscript). 12 (3): 214–218. doi:10.1016/j.acap.2012.01.007. PMID 22459064.
Roberts DB (April 1980). "The etiology of bullous myringitis and the role of mycoplasmas in ear disease: a review". Pediatrics. 65 (4): 761–6. PMID 7367083.
Benninger, Michael S. (2008-03-01). "Acute bacterial rhinosinusitis and otitis media: changes in pathogenicity following widespread use of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine". Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery. 138 (3): 274–278. doi:10.1016/j.otohns.2007.11.011. ISSN 0194-5998. PMID 18312870.
"Glue Ear". NHS Choices. Department of Health. Archived from the original on 13 November 2012. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
Rosenfeld RM, Culpepper L, Yawn B, Mahoney MC (June 2004). "Otitis media with effusion clinical practice guideline". Am Fam Physician. 69 (12): 2776, 2778–9. PMID 15222643.
"Otitis media with effusion: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". U.S. National Library of Medicine. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 17 February 2017.
Owen MJ, Baldwin CD, Swank PR, Pannu AK, Johnson DL, Howie VM (1993). "Relation of infant feeding practices, cigarette smoke exposure, and group child care to the onset and duration of otitis media with effusion in the first two years of life". J. Pediatr. 123 (5): 702–11. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(05)80843-1. PMID 8229477.
Global Burden of Disease Study 2013, Collaborators (22 August 2015). "Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013". Lancet. 386 (9995): 743–800. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60692-4. PMC 4561509. PMID 26063472.
Acuin, Jose; WHO Dept. of Child and Adolescent Health and Development; WHO Programme for the Prevention of Blindness and Deafness (2004). Chronic suppurative otitis media : burden of illness and management options. Geneve: World Health Organization. ISBN 978-92-4-159158-4. Archived from the original on 2017-02-28.
Lawrence, Ruth (2016). Breastfeeding : a guide for the medical profession, 8th edition. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier. pp. 216–217. ISBN 978-0-323-35776-0.
Fortanier, Alexandre C.; Venekamp, Roderick P.; Boonacker, Chantal W. B.; Hak, Eelko; Schilder, Anne G. M.; Sanders, Elisabeth A. M.; Damoiseaux, Roger A. M. J. (2014-04-02). "Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines for preventing otitis media". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (4): CD001480. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001480.pub4. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 24696098.
Norhayati, Mohd N.; Ho, Jacqueline J.; Azman, Mohd Y. (October 17, 2017). "Influenza vaccines for preventing acute otitis media in infants and children". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 10: CD010089. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010089.pub3. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 29039160.
Rovers MM, Schilder AG, Zielhuis GA, Rosenfeld RM (2004). "Otitis media". Lancet. 363 (9407): 564–573. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15495-0. PMID 14962529.
Pukander J, Luotonem J, Timonen M, Karma P (1985). "Risk factors affecting the occurrence of acute otitis media among 2-3 year old urban children". Acta Otolaryngol. 100 (3–4): 260–265. doi:10.3109/00016488509104788. PMID 4061076.
Etzel RA (1987). "Smoke and ear effusions". Pediatrics. 79 (2): 309–311. PMID 3808812.
Rovers MM, Numans ME, Langenbach E, Grobbee DE, Verheij TJ, Schilder AG (August 2008). "Is pacifier use a risk factor for acute otitis media? A dynamic cohort study". Fam Pract. 25 (4): 233–6. doi:10.1093/fampra/cmn030. PMID 18562333.
Leach AJ, Morris PS (2006). Leach AJ, ed. "Antibiotics for the prevention of acute and chronic suppurative otitis media in children". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD004401. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004401.pub2. PMID 17054203.
Azarpazhooh, A; Lawrence, HP; Shah, PS (3 August 2016). "Xylitol for preventing acute otitis media in children up to 12 years of age". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (8): CD007095. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007095.pub3. PMID 27486835. open access
Gulani, A; Sachdev, HS (Jun 29, 2014). "Zinc supplements for preventing otitis media". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 6 (6): CD006639. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006639.pub4. PMID 24974096.
Sattout, A.; Jenner, R. (February 2008). "Best evidence topic reports. Bet 1. The role of topical analgesia in acute otitis media". Emerg Med J. 25 (2): 103–4. doi:10.1136/emj.2007.056648. PMID 18212148.
Coleman C, Moore M (2008). Coleman C, ed. "Decongestants and antihistamines for acute otitis media in children". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD001727. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001727.pub4. PMID 18646076.
Thompson, M; Vodicka, TA; Blair, PS; Buckley, DI; Heneghan, C; Hay, AD; TARGET Programme, Team (Dec 11, 2013). "Duration of symptoms of respiratory tract infections in children: systematic review". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 347: f7027. doi:10.1136/bmj.f7027. PMC 3898587. PMID 24335668.
Principi, N; Bianchini, S; Baggi, E; Esposito, S (February 2013). "No evidence for the effectiveness of systemic corticosteroids in acute pharyngitis, community-acquired pneumonia and acute otitis media". European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases. 32 (2): 151–60. doi:10.1007/s10096-012-1747-y. PMID 22993127.
Venekamp, R; Sanders, S; Glasziou, P (2015). "Antibiotics for acute otitis media in children". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 6 (6): CD000219.pub4. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000219.pub4. PMID 26099233.
Thanaviratananich, S; Laopaiboon, M; Vatanasapt, P (13 December 2013). "Once or twice daily versus three times daily amoxicillin with or without clavulanate for the treatment of acute otitis media". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 12 (12): CD004975. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004975.pub3. PMID 24338106.
Kozyrskyj, A; Klassen, TP; Moffatt, M; Harvey, K (8 September 2010). "Short-course antibiotics for acute otitis media". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (9): CD001095. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001095.pub2. PMID 20824827.
Macfadyen, CA; Acuin, JM; Gamble, C (Jan 25, 2006). "Systemic antibiotics versus topical treatments for chronically discharging ears with underlying eardrum perforations". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (1): CD005608. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005608. PMID 16437533.
Venekamp, Roderick P.; Mick, Paul; Schilder, Anne Gm; Nunez, Desmond A. (2018). "Grommets (ventilation tubes) for recurrent acute otitis media in children". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 5: CD012017. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012017.pub2. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 29741289.
Steele, DW; Adam, GP; Di, M; Halladay, CH; Balk, EM; Trikalinos, TA (June 2017). "Effectiveness of Tympanostomy Tubes for Otitis Media: A Meta-analysis". Pediatrics. 139 (6): e20170125. doi:10.1542/peds.2017-0125. PMID 28562283.
Browning GG, Rovers MM, Williamson I, Lous J, Burton MJ (2010). "Grommets (ventilation tubes) for hearing loss associated with otitis media with effusion in children". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (10): CD001801. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001801.pub3. PMID 20927726.
American Academy of Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery, "Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question" (PDF), Choosing Wisely: an initiative of the ABIM Foundation, American Academy of Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery, archived (PDF) from the original on May 13, 2015, retrieved August 1, 2013, which cites
Rosenfeld, R. M.; Schwartz, S. R.; Pynnonen, M. A.; Tunkel, D. E.; Hussey, H. M.; Fichera, J. S.; Grimes, A. M.; Hackell, J. M.; Harrison, M. F.; Haskell, H.; Haynes, D. S.; Kim, T. W.; Lafreniere, D. C.; LeBlanc, K.; Mackey, W. L.; Netterville, J. L.; Pipan, M. E.; Raol, N. P.; Schellhase, K. G. (2013). "Clinical Practice Guideline: Tympanostomy Tubes in Children". Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery. 149 (1 Suppl): S1–S35. doi:10.1177/0194599813487302. ISSN 0194-5998. PMID 23818543.
Rosenfeld, RM; Shin, JJ; Schwartz, SR; Coggins, R; Gagnon, L; Hackell, JM; Hoelting, D; Hunter, LL; Kummer, AW; Payne, SC; Poe, DS; Veling, M; Vila, PM; Walsh, SA; Corrigan, MD (February 2016). "Clinical Practice Guideline: Otitis Media with Effusion (Update)". Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery. 154 (1 Suppl): S1–S41. doi:10.1177/0194599815623467. PMID 26832942.
Wallace, IF; Berkman, ND; Lohr, KN; Harrison, MF; Kimple, AJ; Steiner, MJ (February 2014). "Surgical treatments for otitis media with effusion: a systematic review". Pediatrics. 133 (2): 296–311. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-3228. PMID 24394689.
Rosenfeld, RM; Schwartz, SR; Pynnonen, MA; Tunkel, DE; Hussey, HM; Fichera, JS; Grimes, AM; Hackell, JM; Harrison, MF; Haskell, H; Haynes, DS; Kim, TW; Lafreniere, DC; LeBlanc, K; Mackey, WL; Netterville, JL; Pipan, ME; Raol, NP; Schellhase, KG (July 2013). "Clinical practice guideline: Tympanostomy tubes in children". Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery. 149 (1 Suppl): S1–35. doi:10.1177/0194599813487302. PMID 23818543.
Griffin, G; Flynn, CA (7 September 2011). "Antihistamines and/or decongestants for otitis media with effusion (OME) in children". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (9): CD003423. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003423.pub3. PMID 21901683.
Simpson, SA; Lewis, R; van der Voort, J; Butler, CC (11 May 2011). "Oral or topical nasal steroids for hearing loss associated with otitis media with effusion in children". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (5): CD001935. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001935.pub3. PMID 21563132.
Griffin, G; Flynn, CA (7 September 2011). "Antihistamines and/or decongestants for otitis media with effusion (OME) in children". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (9): CD003423. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003423.pub3. PMID 21901683.
Blanshard, JD; Maw, AR; Bawden, R (June 1993). "Conservative treatment of otitis media with effusion by autoinflation of the middle ear". Clinical Otolaryngology and Allied Sciences. 18 (3): 188–92. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2273.1993.tb00827.x. PMID 8365006.
Perera, Rafael; Glasziou, Paul P.; Heneghan, Carl J.; McLellan, Julie; Williamson, Ian (31 May 2013). "Autoinflation for hearing loss associated with otitis media with effusion". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (5): CD006285. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006285.pub2. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 23728660.
van den Aardweg, MT; Schilder, AG; Herkert, E; Boonacker, CW; Rovers, MM (20 January 2010). "Adenoidectomy for otitis media in children". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (1): CD007810. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007810.pub2. PMID 20091650.
Jacobs, J; Springer, DA; Crothers, D (February 2001). "Homeopathic treatment of acute otitis media in children: a preliminary randomized placebo-controlled trial". The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 20 (2): 177–83. doi:10.1097/00006454-200102000-00012. PMID 11224838.
Pratt-Harrington D (October 2000). "Galbreath technique: a manipulative treatment for otitis media revisited". J Am Osteopath Assoc. 100 (10): 635–9. PMID 11105452.
Bronfort G, Haas M, Evans R, Leininger B, Triano J (2010). "Effectiveness of manual therapies: the UK evidence report". Chiropr Osteopat. 18 (1): 3. doi:10.1186/1746-1340-18-3. PMC 2841070. PMID 20184717.
Jung, TT; Alper, CM; Hellstorm, SO; Hunter, LL; Casselbrant, ML; Groth, A; Kemaloglu, YK; Kim, SG; Lim, D; Nittrourer, S; Park, KH; Sabo, D; Sprately, J (April 2013). "Panel 8: Complications and sequelae". Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 148 (4 Suppl): E122–43. doi:10.1177/0194599812467425. PMID 23536529.
Vos, T; Flaxman, A. D.; Naghavi, M; Lozano, R; Michaud, C; Ezzati, M; Shibuya, K; Salomon, J. A.; Abdalla, S; Aboyans, V; Abraham, J; Ackerman, I; Aggarwal, R; Ahn, S. Y.; Ali, M. K.; Alvarado, M; Anderson, H. R.; Anderson, L. M.; Andrews, K. G.; Atkinson, C; Baddour, L. M.; Bahalim, A. N.; Barker-Collo, S; Barrero, L. H.; Bartels, D. H.; Basáñez, M. G.; Baxter, A; Bell, M. L.; Benjamin, E. J.; et al. (Dec 15, 2012). "Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010". Lancet. 380 (9859): 2163–96. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61729-2. PMC 6350784. PMID 23245607.
Da Costa SS; Rosito, Letícia Petersen Schmidt; Dornelles, Cristina (February 2009). "Sensorineural hearing loss in patients with chronic otitis media". Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 266 (2): 221–4. doi:10.1007/s00405-008-0739-0. hdl:10183/125807. PMID 18629531.
Roberts K (June 1997). "A preliminary account of the effect of otitis media on 15-month-olds' categorization and some implications for early language learning". J Speech Lang Hear Res. 40 (3): 508–18. doi:10.1044/jslhr.4003.508. PMID 9210110. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.
Bidadi S, Nejadkazem M, Naderpour M (November 2008). "The relationship between chronic otitis media-induced hearing loss and the acquisition of social skills". Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 139 (5): 665–70. doi:10.1016/j.otohns.2008.08.004. PMID 18984261.
Gouma P, Mallis A, Daniilidis V, Gouveris H, Armenakis N, Naxakis S (January 2011). "Behavioral trends in young children with conductive hearing loss: a case-control study". Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 268 (1): 63–6. doi:10.1007/s00405-010-1346-4. PMID 20665042.
Yilmaz S, Karasalihoglu AR, Tas A, Yagiz R, Tas M (February 2006). "Otoacoustic emissions in young adults with a history of otitis media". J Laryngol Otol. 120 (2): 103–7. doi:10.1017/S0022215105004871. PMID 16359151.
您需要登录后才可以回帖 登录 | 注册
Copyright © 2011-2025 东莞市珍屯医疗科技有限公司Powered by zhentun.com
返回顶部